Hedonism Hedonism is a school of thought that argues

that pleasure is the only intrinsic good.

In very simple terms, a hedonist strives to maximize net pleasure .

Ethical hedonism is the idea that all people have the right to do everything in their power

to achieve the greatest amount of pleasure possible to them.

It is also the idea that every person's pleasure should far surpass their amount of pain.

Ethical hedonism is said to have been started by a student of Socrates, Aristippus of Cyrene.

He held the idea that pleasure is the highest good.

Etymology The name derives from the Greek word for "delight"

(ἡδονισμός hēdonismos from ἡδονή hēdonē "pleasure", cognate with English

sweet + suffix -ισμός -ismos "ism").

History of development Sumerian civilization

In the original Old Babylonian version of the Epic of Gilgamesh, which was written soon

after the invention of writing, Siduri gave the following advice "Fill your belly.

Day and night make merry.

Let days be full of joy.

Dance and make music day and night These things alone are the concern of men", which may represent

the first recorded advocacy of a hedonistic philosophy.

Ancient Egypt Scenes of a harper entertaining guests at

a feast was common in ancient Egyptian tombs (see Harper's Songs), and sometimes contained

hedonistic elements, calling guests to submit to pleasure because they cannot be sure that

they will be rewarded for good with a blissful afterlife.

The following is a song attributed to the reign of one of the Intef kings before or

after the 12th dynasty, and the text was used in the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties.

Cārvāka Cārvāka was an Indian hedonist school of

thought that arose approximately 600 BCE, and died out in the 14th century CE.

The Cārvākas maintained that the Hindu scriptures are false, that the priests are liars, and

that there is no afterlife, and that pleasure should be the aim of living.

Unlike other Indian schools of philosophy, the Cārvākas argued that there is nothing

wrong with sensual indulgence.

They held a naturalistic worldview.

They believed that perception is the only source of knowledge.

Classic schools of antiquity Democritus seems to be the earliest philosopher

on record to have categorically embraced a hedonistic philosophy; he called the supreme

goal of life "contentment" or "cheerfulness", claiming that "joy and sorrow are the distinguishing

mark of things beneficial and harmful" (DK 68 B 188).

The Cyrenaic school The Cyrenaics were an ultra-hedonist Greek

school of philosophy founded in the 4th century BCE, supposedly by Aristippus of Cyrene, although

many of the principles of the school are believed to have been formalized by his grandson of

the same name, Aristippus the Younger.

The school was so called after Cyrene, the birthplace of Aristippus.

It was one of the earliest Socratic schools.

The Cyrenaics taught that the only intrinsic good is pleasure, which meant not just the

absence of pain, but positively enjoyable sensations.

Of these, momentary pleasures, especially physical ones, are stronger than those of

anticipation or memory.

They did, however, recognize the value of social obligation, and that pleasure could

be gained from altruism.

Theodorus the Atheist was a latter exponent of hedonism who was a disciple of younger

Aristippus, while becoming well known for exposing atheism.

The school died out within a century, and was replaced by Epicureanism.

The Cyrenaics were known for their skeptical theory of knowledge.

They reduced logic to a basic doctrine concerning the criterion of truth.

They thought that we can know with certainty our immediate sense-experiences (for instance,

that I am having a sweet sensation now) but can know nothing about the nature of the objects

that cause these sensations (for instance, that the honey is sweet).

They also denied that we can have knowledge of what the experiences of other people are

like.

All knowledge is immediate sensation.

These sensations are motions which are purely subjective, and are painful, indifferent or

pleasant, according as they are violent, tranquil or gentle.

Further they are entirely individual, and can in no way be described as constituting

absolute objective knowledge.

Feeling, therefore, is the only possible criterion of knowledge and of conduct.

Our ways of being affected are alone knowable.

Thus the sole aim for everyone should be pleasure.

Cyrenaicism deduces a single, universal aim for all people which is pleasure.

Furthermore, all feeling is momentary and homogeneous.

It follows that past and future pleasure have no real existence for us, and that among present

pleasures there is no distinction of kind.

Socrates had spoken of the higher pleasures of the intellect; the Cyrenaics denied the

validity of this distinction and said that bodily pleasures, being more simple and more

intense, were preferable.

Momentary pleasure, preferably of a physical kind, is the only good for humans.

However some actions which give immediate pleasure can create more than their equivalent

of pain.

The wise person should be in control of pleasures rather than be enslaved to them, otherwise

pain will result, and this requires judgement to evaluate the different pleasures of life.

Regard should be paid to law and custom, because even though these things have no intrinsic

value on their own, violating them will lead to unpleasant penalties being imposed by others.

Likewise, friendship and justice are useful because of the pleasure they provide.

Thus the Cyrenaics believed in the hedonistic value of social obligation and altruistic

behaviour.

Epicureanism Epicureanism is a system of philosophy based

upon the teachings of Epicurus (c. 341–c. 270 BC), founded around 307 BC.

Epicurus was an atomic materialist, following in the steps of Democritus and Leucippus.

His materialism led him to a general stance against superstition or the idea of divine

intervention.

Following Aristippus—about whom very little is known—Epicurus believed that the greatest

good was to seek modest, sustainable "pleasure" in the form of a state of tranquility and

freedom from fear (ataraxia) and absence of bodily pain (aponia) through knowledge of

the workings of the world and the limits of our desires.

The combination of these two states is supposed to constitute happiness in its highest form.

Although Epicureanism is a form of hedonism, insofar as it declares pleasure as the sole

intrinsic good, its conception of absence of pain as the greatest pleasure and its advocacy

of a simple life make it different from "hedonism" as it is commonly understood.

In the Epicurean view, the highest pleasure (tranquility and freedom from fear) was obtained

by knowledge, friendship and living a virtuous and temperate life.

He lauded the enjoyment of simple pleasures, by which he meant abstaining from bodily desires,

such as sex and appetites, verging on asceticism.

He argued that when eating, one should not eat too richly, for it could lead to dissatisfaction

later, such as the grim realization that one could not afford such delicacies in the future.

Likewise, sex could lead to increased lust and dissatisfaction with the sexual partner.

Epicurus did not articulate a broad system of social ethics that has survived but had

a unique version of the Golden Rule.

Epicureanism was originally a challenge to Platonism, though later it became the main

opponent of Stoicism.

Epicurus and his followers shunned politics.

After the death of Epicurus, his school was headed by Hermarchus; later many Epicurean

societies flourished in the Late Hellenistic era and during the Roman era (such as those

in Antiochia, Alexandria, Rhodes and Ercolano).

The poet Lucretius is its most known Roman proponent.

By the end of the Roman Empire, having undergone Christian attack and repression, Epicureanism

had all but died out, and would be resurrected in the 17th century by the atomist Pierre

Gassendi, who adapted it to the Christian doctrine.

Some writings by Epicurus have survived.

Some scholars consider the epic poem On the Nature of Things by Lucretius to present in

one unified work the core arguments and theories of Epicureanism.

Many of the papyrus scrolls unearthed at the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum are Epicurean

texts.

At least some are thought to have belonged to the Epicurean Philodemus.

Mohism Mohism was a philosophical school of thought

founded by Mozi in the 5th century BCE.

It paralleled the utilitarianism later developed by English thinkers.

As Confucianism became the preferred philosophy of later Chinese dynasties, starting from

the Emperor Wu of Han, Mohism and other non-Confucian philosophical schools of thought were suppressed.

Christian hedonism Christian hedonism is a controversial Christian

doctrine current in some evangelical circles, particularly those of the Reformed tradition.

" Christian Hedonism may describe the theology of Jonathan Edwards.

In the 17th century the atomist Pierre Gassendi, adapted Epicureanism to the Christian doctrine.

Utilitarianism Utilitarianism addresses problems with moral

motivation neglected by Kantianism by giving a central role to happiness.

It is an ethical theory holding that the proper course of action is the one that maximizes

the overall "good" of the society.

It is thus one form of consequentialism meaning that the moral worth of an action is determined

by its resulting outcome.

The most influential contributors to this theory are considered to be Jeremy Bentham

and John Stuart Mill.

The 18th and 19th-century British philosophers Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill defended

the ethical theory of utilitarianism, according to which we should perform whichever action

maximizes the aggregate good.

Conjoining hedonism, as a view as to what is good for people, to utilitarianism has

the result that all action should be directed toward achieving the greatest total amount

of happiness (Hedonic Calculus).

Though consistent in their pursuit of happiness, Bentham and Mill’s versions of hedonism

differ.

There are two somewhat basic schools of thought on hedonism:

One school, grouped around Jeremy Bentham, defends a quantitative approach.

Bentham believed that the value of a pleasure could be quantitatively understood.

Essentially, he believed the value of pleasure to be its intensity multiplied by its duration

- so it was not just the number of pleasures, but their intensity and how long they lasted

that must be taken into account.

Other proponents, like John Stuart Mill, argue a qualitative approach.

Mill believed that there can be different levels of pleasure - higher quality pleasure

is better than lower quality pleasure.

Mill also argues that simpler beings (he often refers to pigs) have an easier access to the

simpler pleasures; since they do not see other aspects of life, they can simply indulge in

their lower pleasures.

The more elaborate beings tend to spend more thought on other matters and hence lessen

the time for simple pleasure.

It is therefore more difficult for them to indulge in such "simple pleasures" in the

same manner.

Contemporary approaches Contemporary proponents of hedonism are Swedish

philosopher Torbjörn Tännsjö and Fred Feldman.

Michel Onfray A dedicated contemporary hedonist philosopher

and on the history of hedonistic thought is the French Michel Onfray.

He defines hedonism "as an introspective attitude to life based on taking pleasure yourself

and pleasuring others, without harming yourself or anyone else."

"Onfray's philosophical project is to define an ethical hedonism, a joyous utilitarianism,

and a generalized aesthetic of sensual materialism that explores how to use the brain's and the

body's capacities to their fullest extent -- while restoring philosophy to a useful

role in art, politics, and everyday life and decisions."

Onfray's works "have explored the philosophical resonances and components of (and challenges

to) science, painting, gastronomy, sex and sensuality, bioethics, wine, and writing.

His most ambitious project is his projected six-volume Counter-history of Philosophy,"

For him "In opposition to the ascetic ideal advocated by the dominant school of thought,

hedonism suggests identifying the highest good with your own pleasure and that of others;

the one must never be indulged at the expense of sacrificing the other.

Obtaining this balance – my pleasure at the same time as the pleasure of others – presumes

that we approach the subject from different angles – political, ethical, aesthetic,

erotic, bioethical, pedagogical, historiographical…."

For this he has "written books on each of these facets of the same world view."

His philosophy aims "for "micro-revolutions, " or revolutions of the individual and small

groups of like-minded people who live by his hedonistic, libertarian values."

Abolitionism The Abolitionist Society is a transhumanist

group calling for the abolition of suffering in all sentient life through the use of advanced

biotechnology.

Their core philosophy is negative utilitarianism.

David Pearce is a theorist of this perspective and he believes and promotes the idea that

there exists a strong ethical imperative for humans to work towards the abolition of suffering

in all sentient life.

His book-length internet manifesto The Hedonistic Imperative outlines how technologies such

as genetic engineering, nanotechnology, pharmacology, and neurosurgery could potentially converge

to eliminate all forms of unpleasant experience among human and non-human animals, replacing

suffering with gradients of well-being, a project he refers to as "paradise engineering".

A transhumanist and a vegan, Pearce believes that we (or our future posthuman descendants)

have a responsibility not only to avoid cruelty to animals within human society but also to

alleviate the suffering of animals in the wild.

Criticisms There is a critical point where the value

of hedonistic properties is affected by actual age and the depreciation schedule turns upward.

It is argued that if social constructionism is going to come to grips with morality and

agency it must abandon explanations that invoke the necessary causation of metaphysical abstractions

such as hedonism.