At the heart of every galaxy lies a supermassive black hole devouring everything that falls
At the heart of every galaxy lies a supermassive black hole devouring everything that falls

within its gravitational pull, almost everything, that is.
within its gravitational pull, almost everything, that is.

While we often conceive of black holes as massive cosmic vacuum cleaners, they aren't
While we often conceive of black holes as massive cosmic vacuum cleaners, they aren't

entirely one-way.
entirely one-way.

When gas falls into a black hole, it spirals inwards like water down a plug hole, but not
When gas falls into a black hole, it spirals inwards like water down a plug hole, but not

all of it is lost; some of it is blasted out in narrow, powerful beams known as jets by
all of it is lost; some of it is blasted out in narrow, powerful beams known as jets by

astronomers.
astronomers.

Jets have been known to astronomers for nearly a century.
Jets have been known to astronomers for nearly a century.

Heber Curtis identified the first jet in 1918, emanating from the core of the massive galaxy
Heber Curtis identified the first jet in 1918, emanating from the core of the massive galaxy

M87.
M87.

What he initially thought was a "strange straight ray" of light turned out to be a powerful
What he initially thought was a "strange straight ray" of light turned out to be a powerful

source of radio waves.
source of radio waves.

Astronomers have detected comparable jets all around the universe since then.
Astronomers have detected comparable jets all around the universe since then.

However, despite decades of research, it is still unknown what these jets are made of.
However, despite decades of research, it is still unknown what these jets are made of.

In some instances, the jets travel outside the galaxy, resulting in massive radio lobes
In some instances, the jets travel outside the galaxy, resulting in massive radio lobes

far from the active galaxy center.
far from the active galaxy center.

With the help of radio telescopes, it has been observed that galaxies can take on a
With the help of radio telescopes, it has been observed that galaxies can take on a

variety of shapes, the majority of which resemble dumbbells.
variety of shapes, the majority of which resemble dumbbells.

Depending on how bright they are and how quickly they consume the stuff around them, they are
Depending on how bright they are and how quickly they consume the stuff around them, they are

known as radio galaxies or quasars.
known as radio galaxies or quasars.

As these gigantic black holes grow to a billion times the mass of the Sun, their jets become
As these gigantic black holes grow to a billion times the mass of the Sun, their jets become

powerful enough to sweep gas out of the galaxy, thus stopping the birth of new stars!
powerful enough to sweep gas out of the galaxy, thus stopping the birth of new stars!

Only a tiny percentage of active galaxies with jets have their jets aimed straight at
Only a tiny percentage of active galaxies with jets have their jets aimed straight at

Earth.
Earth.

In those circumstances, we observe radiation across the electromagnetic spectrum, amplified
In those circumstances, we observe radiation across the electromagnetic spectrum, amplified

by the jet's incredible speed, and we refer to these sources as blazars.
by the jet's incredible speed, and we refer to these sources as blazars.

We are learning about the physics of how powerful jets are produced and sustained by integrating
We are learning about the physics of how powerful jets are produced and sustained by integrating

NuSTAR X-ray observations with observations in radio, visible light, and extremely energetic
NuSTAR X-ray observations with observations in radio, visible light, and extremely energetic

gamma-rays.
gamma-rays.

One of the unsolved puzzles is how jets produce radiation with such a broad spectrum up to
One of the unsolved puzzles is how jets produce radiation with such a broad spectrum up to

very high energy.
very high energy.

These jets fly at near-lightspeed outwards, depositing massive amounts of energy in their
These jets fly at near-lightspeed outwards, depositing massive amounts of energy in their

surroundings.
surroundings.

The jets' primary method of releasing this enormous amount of motion energy is by converting
The jets' primary method of releasing this enormous amount of motion energy is by converting

it into extremely high-energy gamma rays.
it into extremely high-energy gamma rays.

How exactly this radiation is formed is an outstanding mystery.
How exactly this radiation is formed is an outstanding mystery.

The jet must release its energy somewhere, and prior research has not discovered where
The jet must release its energy somewhere, and prior research has not discovered where

it goes.
it goes.

The leading candidates are the broad-line region and the molecular torus, which orbit
The leading candidates are the broad-line region and the molecular torus, which orbit

black holes and are made of gas and light.
black holes and are made of gas and light.

By releasing some of its energy, a black hole's jet has the potential to convert visible and
By releasing some of its energy, a black hole's jet has the potential to convert visible and

infrared light in any region into high-energy gamma rays.
infrared light in any region into high-energy gamma rays.

Recent research funded by NASA clarifies the debate by demonstrating that the jets mainly
Recent research funded by NASA clarifies the debate by demonstrating that the jets mainly

release energy in the molecular torus, rather than the broad-line region.
release energy in the molecular torus, rather than the broad-line region.

The broad-line region is closer to the center of a black hole, at a distance of about 0.3
The broad-line region is closer to the center of a black hole, at a distance of about 0.3

light-years.
light-years.

The molecular torus is much farther out, more than three light-years away.
The molecular torus is much farther out, more than three light-years away.

The bright radio waves seen from the jets by our radio telescopes on Earth indicate
The bright radio waves seen from the jets by our radio telescopes on Earth indicate

that the jets must include electrons.
that the jets must include electrons.

However, because electrons have a negative electric charge and the jets must be electrically
However, because electrons have a negative electric charge and the jets must be electrically

neutral, something else must balance that charge.
neutral, something else must balance that charge.

The two possibilities are positrons, the antimatter counterparts of electrons, or the atomic nuclei.
The two possibilities are positrons, the antimatter counterparts of electrons, or the atomic nuclei.

Because the amount of energy carried away from the black hole by jets is proportional
Because the amount of energy carried away from the black hole by jets is proportional

to the mass of the particles contained in them, a jet carrying the nuclei can carry
to the mass of the particles contained in them, a jet carrying the nuclei can carry

thousands of times more energy than a jet containing electrons and positrons.
thousands of times more energy than a jet containing electrons and positrons.

The energy is finally deposited in the surrounding environment, where radio eyes may observe
The energy is finally deposited in the surrounding environment, where radio eyes may observe

its spectacular effects; in powerful galaxies, black hole jets are seen to blow gigantic
its spectacular effects; in powerful galaxies, black hole jets are seen to blow gigantic

bubbles, thousands of light-years long.
bubbles, thousands of light-years long.

As electrons in atoms hop between different energy levels (like rungs on a ladder), they
As electrons in atoms hop between different energy levels (like rungs on a ladder), they

emit light with a distinct wavelength, in effect, a distinct color that is unique to
emit light with a distinct wavelength, in effect, a distinct color that is unique to

that atom.
that atom.

Physicists have precisely measured these wavelengths in the lab, allowing us to directly correlate
Physicists have precisely measured these wavelengths in the lab, allowing us to directly correlate

light of a specific wavelength with a specific atom.
light of a specific wavelength with a specific atom.

Scientists are still carrying out more research on black hole jets because knowing what black
Scientists are still carrying out more research on black hole jets because knowing what black

hole jets are made of is one more piece of the puzzle that may help us finally unlock
hole jets are made of is one more piece of the puzzle that may help us finally unlock

the mystery of how the jets are actually launched.
the mystery of how the jets are actually launched.

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