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Hello and welcome to Open Science.
Hello and welcome to Open Science.

I’m Dr. Marshall Porterfield, and today we will be discussing the impact of sex and
I’m Dr. Marshall Porterfield, and today we will be discussing the impact of sex and

gender on adaptation to space.
gender on adaptation to space.

Joining me today in this discussion, a distinguished panel: Dr. Graham Scott, to my left, from
Joining me today in this discussion, a distinguished panel: Dr. Graham Scott, to my left, from

the National Space Biomedical Research Institute; NASA’s senior medical advisor, Dr. Saralyn
the National Space Biomedical Research Institute; NASA’s senior medical advisor, Dr. Saralyn

Mark; and from the Human Exploration and Mission Operations Directorate, Dr. Bette Siegel.
Mark; and from the Human Exploration and Mission Operations Directorate, Dr. Bette Siegel.

Now that--together, as a team, you’ve been working with other investigators to study
Now that--together, as a team, you’ve been working with other investigators to study

and better understand the role of impact of sex and gender in space flight adaptation.
and better understand the role of impact of sex and gender in space flight adaptation.

So, what are some of the key findings from your studies, just off the top?
So, what are some of the key findings from your studies, just off the top?

Firstly, Marshall, let me say that both women and men do very well in space.
Firstly, Marshall, let me say that both women and men do very well in space.

Having said that, we do see some differences--some of these are very subtle and others are more
Having said that, we do see some differences--some of these are very subtle and others are more

pronounced.
pronounced.

For example, the majority of the astronauts are now having some visual impairment issues.
For example, the majority of the astronauts are now having some visual impairment issues.

Most--in most cases, these are mild, really, just involving a change in the prescription
Most--in most cases, these are mild, really, just involving a change in the prescription

that an astronaut might need in her or his eyeglasses, you know, one to two months, let’s
that an astronaut might need in her or his eyeglasses, you know, one to two months, let’s

say, into the mission.
say, into the mission.

But, in a minority of cases, maybe in about 20% of the cases, we’re seeing more significant
But, in a minority of cases, maybe in about 20% of the cases, we’re seeing more significant

issues with the eyes, and these could involve changes in, actually, the shape of the eyes
issues with the eyes, and these could involve changes in, actually, the shape of the eyes

that don’t even fully resolve when the astronauts return to Earth.
that don’t even fully resolve when the astronauts return to Earth.

And we’re seeing these more pathological changes.
And we’re seeing these more pathological changes.

We’re seeing those only in the male astronauts.
We’re seeing those only in the male astronauts.

The other area where there are some quite significant differences is in the ability
The other area where there are some quite significant differences is in the ability

of our male and our female astronauts to spend time in space, and this is due to the radiation
of our male and our female astronauts to spend time in space, and this is due to the radiation

limits that NASA imposes on the astronauts.
limits that NASA imposes on the astronauts.

So, our female astronauts can spend significantly fewer days in space because, based on ground
So, our female astronauts can spend significantly fewer days in space because, based on ground

studies and based on data that’s been collected over several decades, it’s been prognosticated
studies and based on data that’s been collected over several decades, it’s been prognosticated

that the female astronauts are more susceptible to cancer.
that the female astronauts are more susceptible to cancer.

And NASA has set a very strict limit of only having a 3% increased risk of cancer due to
And NASA has set a very strict limit of only having a 3% increased risk of cancer due to

time in space over the course of an astronaut’s lifetime.
time in space over the course of an astronaut’s lifetime.

So, there’s a couple of examples of where we do see some significant differences in
So, there’s a couple of examples of where we do see some significant differences in

how our male and our female astronauts are adapted to space flight.
how our male and our female astronauts are adapted to space flight.

We also see interesting findings in the cardiovascular realm, generally, women who respond to stress
We also see interesting findings in the cardiovascular realm, generally, women who respond to stress

with an increase of heartrate.
with an increase of heartrate.

Men tend to respond by clamping down their vessels primarily due to hormones such as
Men tend to respond by clamping down their vessels primarily due to hormones such as

testosterone that causes that vasoconstriction, that closing down of the blood vessel to maintain
testosterone that causes that vasoconstriction, that closing down of the blood vessel to maintain

blood pressure.
blood pressure.

We see with many of our women, female astronauts returning that they may experience what we
We see with many of our women, female astronauts returning that they may experience what we

call orthostatic hypotension.
call orthostatic hypotension.

And what that means is a drop in blood pressure, which puts them at risk for fainting.
And what that means is a drop in blood pressure, which puts them at risk for fainting.

And it’s primarily due, we believe, to these changes in volume as well as how we respond
And it’s primarily due, we believe, to these changes in volume as well as how we respond

to stress.
to stress.

Men and women respond differently in their vasculature.
Men and women respond differently in their vasculature.

What we did is we looked at things that we see here on Earth and tried to see if we would
What we did is we looked at things that we see here on Earth and tried to see if we would

see them in space.
see them in space.

So, we know, on Earth, we usually see women, especially as they get older, developing osteoporosis.
So, we know, on Earth, we usually see women, especially as they get older, developing osteoporosis.

Their bones lose calcium.
Their bones lose calcium.

But, when we looked at the data to see what we would see in space, we actually didn’t
But, when we looked at the data to see what we would see in space, we actually didn’t

see a gender effect.
see a gender effect.

We didn’t see a difference between the male and female.
We didn’t see a difference between the male and female.

It was all over the place, basically.
It was all over the place, basically.

Yeah, and what Bette’s alluding to is that there are a lot of personal differences.
Yeah, and what Bette’s alluding to is that there are a lot of personal differences.

So, we’re now living in this era of precision medicine, and what we see is that there are
So, we’re now living in this era of precision medicine, and what we see is that there are

very individualized responses to the space flight environment.
very individualized responses to the space flight environment.

To add onto what Bette’s saying, some people actually come back with increased muscle mass
To add onto what Bette’s saying, some people actually come back with increased muscle mass

relative to the muscle mass that they had when they left to go up onto the International
relative to the muscle mass that they had when they left to go up onto the International

Space Station for six months, and others come back with somewhat less muscle mass or bone
Space Station for six months, and others come back with somewhat less muscle mass or bone

mass.
mass.

So, there are real opportunities to tailor countermeasures to each astronaut and really
So, there are real opportunities to tailor countermeasures to each astronaut and really

invoke this whole new approach of personalized medicine to really make everyone’s stay
invoke this whole new approach of personalized medicine to really make everyone’s stay

in space as healthy and as productive as possible.
in space as healthy and as productive as possible.

What we saw--and we had six work groups looking at how the human body adapts to space.
What we saw--and we had six work groups looking at how the human body adapts to space.

So, those work groups included cardiovascular, neurosensory, reproductive, immunological,
So, those work groups included cardiovascular, neurosensory, reproductive, immunological,

behavioral, and certainly, reproductive has been traditionally what we viewed, but we
behavioral, and certainly, reproductive has been traditionally what we viewed, but we

went even well beyond that, and then, of course, musculoskeletal.
went even well beyond that, and then, of course, musculoskeletal.

And we found difference throughout the body.
And we found difference throughout the body.

Now, the question is, is it statistically significant?
Now, the question is, is it statistically significant?

That may not be as much an issue in regard to how does that translate to what we see
That may not be as much an issue in regard to how does that translate to what we see

clinically?
clinically?

I think what’s exciting is, as we’re increasing our numbers of women flying, we’ll have
I think what’s exciting is, as we’re increasing our numbers of women flying, we’ll have

a better database.
a better database.

We’ll be able to assess.
We’ll be able to assess.

But, we have to keep in mind we’re not looking at who’s faster, who’s better, who’s
But, we have to keep in mind we’re not looking at who’s faster, who’s better, who’s

smarter, who’s better able to adapt.
smarter, who’s better able to adapt.

What we’re doing is trying to understand what we’re seeing so that we can develop
What we’re doing is trying to understand what we’re seeing so that we can develop

the appropriate countermeasures, develop the appropriate equipment so that we can keep
the appropriate countermeasures, develop the appropriate equipment so that we can keep

both men and women healthy in space and when they return to Earth.
both men and women healthy in space and when they return to Earth.

And that’s really a very important point because for our future exploration missions
And that’s really a very important point because for our future exploration missions

are going to be men and women, and so we need to make sure.
are going to be men and women, and so we need to make sure.

We need to study it so that we know that the countermeasure to these changes that we see
We need to study it so that we know that the countermeasure to these changes that we see

in space are going to both protect men and women, both while they’re in space and when
in space are going to both protect men and women, both while they’re in space and when

they return to Earth.
they return to Earth.

Very good.
Very good.

It’s a really fascinating area.
It’s a really fascinating area.

And I noticed, though, in the title of your primary publication that recently came out,
And I noticed, though, in the title of your primary publication that recently came out,

you made the distinction of sex and gender, using that term.
you made the distinction of sex and gender, using that term.

Can you explain to the audience why that’s important to make that distinction?
Can you explain to the audience why that’s important to make that distinction?

So, the institute of medicine has defined sex as your biology.
So, the institute of medicine has defined sex as your biology.

Are you male or are you female?
Are you male or are you female?

And gender is the way you respond in society, and so we don’t mean necessarily if someone’s
And gender is the way you respond in society, and so we don’t mean necessarily if someone’s

gay or not.
gay or not.

What we’re really looking at is, perhaps, because you might be a female, maybe you’re
What we’re really looking at is, perhaps, because you might be a female, maybe you’re

getting the same medical care that you might get if you were male.
getting the same medical care that you might get if you were male.

And so, for example, on Earth, when people have a heart attack, we know these symptoms.
And so, for example, on Earth, when people have a heart attack, we know these symptoms.

You might have crushing pain in your chest and shooting down your arms, but that’s
You might have crushing pain in your chest and shooting down your arms, but that’s

really what men experience.
really what men experience.

Women, very often, experience fatigue, or they may experience feeling an upset stomach,
Women, very often, experience fatigue, or they may experience feeling an upset stomach,

nauseous, or something.
nauseous, or something.

And so, when they go to the doctor, someone may not check them out that see if they’re
And so, when they go to the doctor, someone may not check them out that see if they’re

having a heart attack.
having a heart attack.

So, in our papers, that’s how we use the word gender.
So, in our papers, that’s how we use the word gender.

And, actually, after a while, the definitions started to blend together more.
And, actually, after a while, the definitions started to blend together more.

And then, I just want to follow up on that.
And then, I just want to follow up on that.

When the Institute of Medicine released the report in 2001 entitled Does Sex Matter?
When the Institute of Medicine released the report in 2001 entitled Does Sex Matter?

looking at the biological contributions to health, they were very clear on how they define
looking at the biological contributions to health, they were very clear on how they define

sex and gender--again, the psychosocial construct implying gender, the biological chromosomal
sex and gender--again, the psychosocial construct implying gender, the biological chromosomal

implying sex--as we’ve evolved into the world of precision medicine, as we’ve evolved
implying sex--as we’ve evolved into the world of precision medicine, as we’ve evolved

into a world where we understand the influence in genetics or human genome on our health,
into a world where we understand the influence in genetics or human genome on our health,

we’ve come into a space that we call epigenetics, and that certainly influences how we live
we’ve come into a space that we call epigenetics, and that certainly influences how we live

our lives.
our lives.

So, in a sense, as Bette has alluded to, the definition, the delineation between sex and
So, in a sense, as Bette has alluded to, the definition, the delineation between sex and

gender has become more of a continuum.
gender has become more of a continuum.

But, we felt, for the nature of this paper, we wanted to be a little more clear-cut, acknowledging
But, we felt, for the nature of this paper, we wanted to be a little more clear-cut, acknowledging

that the environment influences the genome, and the genome influences the environment.
that the environment influences the genome, and the genome influences the environment.

Very good.
Very good.

So, the data--the body of data that you used for your study included both ground-based
So, the data--the body of data that you used for your study included both ground-based

and space flight-based research.
and space flight-based research.

How does your study benefit us back on Earth in terms of our medical technologies?
How does your study benefit us back on Earth in terms of our medical technologies?

I think space is a fantastic platform to study how the body adapts.
I think space is a fantastic platform to study how the body adapts.

I’m a geriatrician endocrinologist, so I see it as a model for, in a sense, accelerated
I’m a geriatrician endocrinologist, so I see it as a model for, in a sense, accelerated

aging.
aging.

The body adapts to space, and it adapts in a way that is appropriate.
The body adapts to space, and it adapts in a way that is appropriate.

The question is can the body readapt back to Earth, and can we reverse some of the findings
The question is can the body readapt back to Earth, and can we reverse some of the findings

so that we can keep people healthy in space and, certainly, when they return to Earth?
so that we can keep people healthy in space and, certainly, when they return to Earth?

I think what we have seen is that, as we just alluded to, that there are changes in every
I think what we have seen is that, as we just alluded to, that there are changes in every

system of the body.
system of the body.

So, for example, we mentioned osteoporosis.
So, for example, we mentioned osteoporosis.

Osteoporosis is a state of low bone mineral density as well as what we call microarchitectural
Osteoporosis is a state of low bone mineral density as well as what we call microarchitectural

deterioration meaning that the structure of the bone can be impaired, and that puts you
deterioration meaning that the structure of the bone can be impaired, and that puts you

at risk for developing fractures.
at risk for developing fractures.

On Earth, 80% of those afflicted tend to be women, and they’re at high risk, certainly,
On Earth, 80% of those afflicted tend to be women, and they’re at high risk, certainly,

for developing fractures, and men tend to develop osteoporosis and fractures later on
for developing fractures, and men tend to develop osteoporosis and fractures later on

in life.
in life.

So, as we study how the body adapts, how bones adapt, how muscles adapt to space, we can
So, as we study how the body adapts, how bones adapt, how muscles adapt to space, we can

learn appropriately how to prevent bone loss and how to mitigate against that, and we can
learn appropriately how to prevent bone loss and how to mitigate against that, and we can

take those lessons and imply what we need to keep people healthy on Earth.
take those lessons and imply what we need to keep people healthy on Earth.

We see it, really, in every system of the body.
We see it, really, in every system of the body.

One of my other particular interesting favorites to study is how the body adapts from an immunological
One of my other particular interesting favorites to study is how the body adapts from an immunological

perspective.
perspective.

We know, on Earth, women are more resistant to infection.
We know, on Earth, women are more resistant to infection.

But, when they do get infected, they amount very robust responses.
But, when they do get infected, they amount very robust responses.

When women are pregnant, they lose that resistance, of course, so that they don’t reject their
When women are pregnant, they lose that resistance, of course, so that they don’t reject their

fetus.
fetus.

In space, we know we have changes in the immune system.
In space, we know we have changes in the immune system.

There’s an altered immune expression to microbes, to bacteria, to, really, everything
There’s an altered immune expression to microbes, to bacteria, to, really, everything

that you’re experiencing in your environment.
that you’re experiencing in your environment.

And we want to see.
And we want to see.

Are we going to find those same findings in space as we do on Earth?
Are we going to find those same findings in space as we do on Earth?

And, if so, how can we change that so people can stay healthy in space?
And, if so, how can we change that so people can stay healthy in space?

Again, every system of the body changes and it has significant relevance to how we age
Again, every system of the body changes and it has significant relevance to how we age

and stay healthy here on this planet.
and stay healthy here on this planet.

I think space medicine can also be translated to Earth in a couple of other contexts.
I think space medicine can also be translated to Earth in a couple of other contexts.

So, one is in the radiation area, so increasingly now, the leading cancer hospitals are using
So, one is in the radiation area, so increasingly now, the leading cancer hospitals are using

particle therapy - proton therapy, and in some parts of the world, using carbon ions.
particle therapy - proton therapy, and in some parts of the world, using carbon ions.

And these are the types of particles, actually, that are impacting our astronauts, that are
And these are the types of particles, actually, that are impacting our astronauts, that are

potentially causing damage in their cells and to their chromosomes.
potentially causing damage in their cells and to their chromosomes.

And so, by studying the effect of space radiation on our astronauts, we may, actually, also,
And so, by studying the effect of space radiation on our astronauts, we may, actually, also,

in parallel, gain some insights to the effect of this particle therapy that is now being
in parallel, gain some insights to the effect of this particle therapy that is now being

therapeutically applied to patients here on Earth.
therapeutically applied to patients here on Earth.

The other thing that I think is interesting is that space--the space environment is the
The other thing that I think is interesting is that space--the space environment is the

ultimate stressful environment in terms of the human body.
ultimate stressful environment in terms of the human body.

The human body has not evolved to, necessarily, to live in space, but yet, we can live there
The human body has not evolved to, necessarily, to live in space, but yet, we can live there

very nicely.
very nicely.

So, given that this is a stressful environment, I think that the way the body adjusts both
So, given that this is a stressful environment, I think that the way the body adjusts both

at a molecular level and also at a physiological level can actually give us some really deep
at a molecular level and also at a physiological level can actually give us some really deep

insights into how much stress we can actually endure as a species and what actually happens
insights into how much stress we can actually endure as a species and what actually happens

as we go through those stressful situations, again, in terms of our molecular responses
as we go through those stressful situations, again, in terms of our molecular responses

and our physiological responses.
and our physiological responses.

So, just so that we have a better idea of the scope of the work that you’ve accomplished
So, just so that we have a better idea of the scope of the work that you’ve accomplished

in this study, over what time period was the data that you used collected, and what are
in this study, over what time period was the data that you used collected, and what are

we talking about in terms of population of subjects, astronauts?
we talking about in terms of population of subjects, astronauts?

So, we looked at the data from 1998 to about 2013 because that’s when we finished our
So, we looked at the data from 1998 to about 2013 because that’s when we finished our

study, but actually, there were studies and reports done that were even prior to 1998.
study, but actually, there were studies and reports done that were even prior to 1998.

So, we were looking at the shuttle astronauts and the astronauts that were on space station.
So, we were looking at the shuttle astronauts and the astronauts that were on space station.

This included the U.S. astronauts as well as the astronauts of the partners.
This included the U.S. astronauts as well as the astronauts of the partners.

And, at that time, during that time period, when you looked at the total number of astronauts,
And, at that time, during that time period, when you looked at the total number of astronauts,

women were about 20% of the astronaut core.
women were about 20% of the astronaut core.

The good thing is we’re moving in the right direction as the last astronaut selection
The good thing is we’re moving in the right direction as the last astronaut selection

was eight astronauts - four men and four women.
was eight astronauts - four men and four women.

And the reason that’s important to us is, as a scientist, I want to see things that
And the reason that’s important to us is, as a scientist, I want to see things that

are statistically significant.
are statistically significant.

And, in order to do that, you have to increase the N. And so, if we fly more women, we can
And, in order to do that, you have to increase the N. And so, if we fly more women, we can

study more women, and then we can make sure that the countermeasures we’re developing
study more women, and then we can make sure that the countermeasures we’re developing

will protect their health and the men’s health as well.
will protect their health and the men’s health as well.

And I think what makes this program, what we develop, this study exciting is that it
And I think what makes this program, what we develop, this study exciting is that it

was a collaborative effort.
was a collaborative effort.

We had six work groups.
We had six work groups.

We had over 50 scientists working across the country.
We had over 50 scientists working across the country.

Not only did we develop the manuscripts, but we also had a virtual workshop so that we
Not only did we develop the manuscripts, but we also had a virtual workshop so that we

could share our information with the general public.
could share our information with the general public.

And it was very much a collaborative effort and, hopefully, an ongoing effort.
And it was very much a collaborative effort and, hopefully, an ongoing effort.

As Bette has alluded to, we are, every day, gathering new data both from our academic
As Bette has alluded to, we are, every day, gathering new data both from our academic

partners and, certainly, within NASA and our other agencies that we work with so that we
partners and, certainly, within NASA and our other agencies that we work with so that we

can better ascertain sex and gender differences so, again, that we can develop the appropriate
can better ascertain sex and gender differences so, again, that we can develop the appropriate

products, and policies, and programs to take care of our astronauts on Earth and when they
products, and policies, and programs to take care of our astronauts on Earth and when they

return to space.
return to space.

Obviously, this is an important new study.
Obviously, this is an important new study.

It has importance and significance in terms of how we plan and operate the Human Research
It has importance and significance in terms of how we plan and operate the Human Research

Program in the future.
Program in the future.

How have you been working with the Human Research Program and conducting this study, and what
How have you been working with the Human Research Program and conducting this study, and what

are your recommendations?
are your recommendations?

Yeah.
Yeah.

So, the Human Research Program has taken a really strong interest in this study.
So, the Human Research Program has taken a really strong interest in this study.

And, as Dr. Mark just mentioned, a number of the investigators that were authors on
And, as Dr. Mark just mentioned, a number of the investigators that were authors on

the various paper that were published, they’re actually funded, in many cases, by the Human
the various paper that were published, they’re actually funded, in many cases, by the Human

Research Program.
Research Program.

So, there are a lot of touch points.
So, there are a lot of touch points.

A number of the aspects, in fact, the majority of the aspects that were looked at in terms
A number of the aspects, in fact, the majority of the aspects that were looked at in terms

of musculoskeletal health or cardiovascular health, these impinged directly on some of
of musculoskeletal health or cardiovascular health, these impinged directly on some of

the major risks that the Human Research Program is seeking to mitigate, to close technology
the major risks that the Human Research Program is seeking to mitigate, to close technology

gaps, and to develop countermeasures for.
gaps, and to develop countermeasures for.

So, I mentioned earlier in the conversation this visual impairment issue.
So, I mentioned earlier in the conversation this visual impairment issue.

This is the number one risk to human health in lieu with all that.
This is the number one risk to human health in lieu with all that.

And so the Human Research Program is keenly interested in better understanding this visual
And so the Human Research Program is keenly interested in better understanding this visual

impairment issue - how to fix women, how to fix men, why there appear to be some differences.
impairment issue - how to fix women, how to fix men, why there appear to be some differences.

That could actually really give us a clue to what’s going on at a molecular or at
That could actually really give us a clue to what’s going on at a molecular or at

a physiological level.
a physiological level.

Why are no women currently having these more clinically significant symptoms?
Why are no women currently having these more clinically significant symptoms?

That could actually be a big clue in terms of solving the underlying mechanism of what’s
That could actually be a big clue in terms of solving the underlying mechanism of what’s

causing this visual impairment, and then, ultimately, leading to a countermeasure.
causing this visual impairment, and then, ultimately, leading to a countermeasure.

So, absolutely, the Human Research Program and the organization that I work for, the
So, absolutely, the Human Research Program and the organization that I work for, the

National Space Biomedical Research Institute, we’re very much involved in architecting
National Space Biomedical Research Institute, we’re very much involved in architecting

and participating in the study.
and participating in the study.

And now, the flow on effect is that there’s an increasing impetus to involve roughly equal
And now, the flow on effect is that there’s an increasing impetus to involve roughly equal

numbers of males and females in Human Research Program and NSBRI funded studies.
numbers of males and females in Human Research Program and NSBRI funded studies.

Now, it isn’t possible in every single case, but there’s a real ground swell, if you
Now, it isn’t possible in every single case, but there’s a real ground swell, if you

will.
will.

And this has been seen in solicitation documents as well to really try to get, as Dr. Siegel
And this has been seen in solicitation documents as well to really try to get, as Dr. Siegel

said, enough female and enough male subjects that you can really start to look for these
said, enough female and enough male subjects that you can really start to look for these

trends.
trends.

And then, ultimately, the goal is to build countermeasures for our females and for our
And then, ultimately, the goal is to build countermeasures for our females and for our

male astronauts, and also to develop these again, going back to what I said earlier,
male astronauts, and also to develop these again, going back to what I said earlier,

for--on a personalized basis and on an individualized basis.
for--on a personalized basis and on an individualized basis.

So we had--oh, I’m sorry.
So we had--oh, I’m sorry.

We had six teams, basically, and I just wanted to say, in each team had a chair and a co-chair.
We had six teams, basically, and I just wanted to say, in each team had a chair and a co-chair.

And the chair usually was a NASA expert meaning they’re NASA or NSBRI.
And the chair usually was a NASA expert meaning they’re NASA or NSBRI.

So, there were people from HRP, and then the co-chair would be someone who had an expertise
So, there were people from HRP, and then the co-chair would be someone who had an expertise

in sex and gender research.
in sex and gender research.

And then, the team members were about six to ten people, and they were, again, divided
And then, the team members were about six to ten people, and they were, again, divided

up like that.
up like that.

I just want to follow up when we talk about how do we assess the data?
I just want to follow up when we talk about how do we assess the data?

Traditionally, we have used statistical significance as being the ultimate goal, the gold standard.
Traditionally, we have used statistical significance as being the ultimate goal, the gold standard.

What we have learned from the national institutes of health who’ve implemented a policy since
What we have learned from the national institutes of health who’ve implemented a policy since

1993 through their NIH revitalization act, that they needed to include male and female
1993 through their NIH revitalization act, that they needed to include male and female

subjects in their studies unless there is a particular reason why they should not be,
subjects in their studies unless there is a particular reason why they should not be,

that you don’t actually need statistical significance to determine value.
that you don’t actually need statistical significance to determine value.

They’ve moved into a space that we call valid analysis.
They’ve moved into a space that we call valid analysis.

Dr. Scott has mentioned trends, and we can learn a lot from that.
Dr. Scott has mentioned trends, and we can learn a lot from that.

I think it helps our researchers to know that they don’t have to have exorbitant numbers.
I think it helps our researchers to know that they don’t have to have exorbitant numbers.

It doesn’t have to be financially draining, but they do have to have sufficient numbers
It doesn’t have to be financially draining, but they do have to have sufficient numbers

so that we can do the valid analysis.
so that we can do the valid analysis.

We’re also moving into a time where we’re looking at preclinical, so meaning we can
We’re also moving into a time where we’re looking at preclinical, so meaning we can

study what happens in the cell culture as well as animal studies to give us insight.
study what happens in the cell culture as well as animal studies to give us insight.

We look at ground-based studies, what happens here on Earth.
We look at ground-based studies, what happens here on Earth.

We also have flight-based studies.
We also have flight-based studies.

We work with animals.
We work with animals.

We work, of course, with humans.
We work, of course, with humans.

And, I think, when you look at the compendium data from both those environments and all
And, I think, when you look at the compendium data from both those environments and all

the various study subjects, you can make a best assessment of how the human body and
the various study subjects, you can make a best assessment of how the human body and

the animal body adapts and what we need to do to keep people healthy.
the animal body adapts and what we need to do to keep people healthy.

So, it’s well aware the agency has a goal of performing a human mission to Mars at some
So, it’s well aware the agency has a goal of performing a human mission to Mars at some

point.
point.

What are your recommendations from your study with regards to Mars architecture for human
What are your recommendations from your study with regards to Mars architecture for human

exploration?
exploration?

We had five robust recommendations, and if you were to drill down, the bottom line is
We had five robust recommendations, and if you were to drill down, the bottom line is

we need to include more women and more men to fly and to conduct experiments both on
we need to include more women and more men to fly and to conduct experiments both on

Earth and in space, and that sex and gender is incorporated into all our experiments and
Earth and in space, and that sex and gender is incorporated into all our experiments and

what we do.
what we do.

And that will certainly influence, again, the policies that we draw up, the products
And that will certainly influence, again, the policies that we draw up, the products

that we need to have so people can live in space, the educational programs that we need
that we need to have so people can live in space, the educational programs that we need

to provide to our astronauts and to the people that work with them to ensure that everyone
to provide to our astronauts and to the people that work with them to ensure that everyone

has the best opportunity to live and work safely and with quality in space and on Earth.
has the best opportunity to live and work safely and with quality in space and on Earth.

I want to take the opportunity to thank you all for joining me today.
I want to take the opportunity to thank you all for joining me today.

This is really a fascinating topic, and it’s very important to the agency and to the future
This is really a fascinating topic, and it’s very important to the agency and to the future

goals of the agency.
goals of the agency.

So, thank you very much for your hard work, and good day.
So, thank you very much for your hard work, and good day.

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