Nuclear Craters and Carolina Bays. This video discusses the nuclear craters in the Nevada
Nuclear Craters and Carolina Bays. This video discusses the nuclear craters in the Nevada

Test Site and the derivation of yield equations relating energy to crater size used today
Test Site and the derivation of yield equations relating energy to crater size used today

to estimate the sizes of meteorites that impact the planets and moons of our solar system.
to estimate the sizes of meteorites that impact the planets and moons of our solar system.

The Glacier Ice Impact Hypothesis proposes that the Carolina Bays were created by secondary
The Glacier Ice Impact Hypothesis proposes that the Carolina Bays were created by secondary

impacts of glacier ice ejected by an extraterrestrial impact on the Laurentide Ice Sheet during
impacts of glacier ice ejected by an extraterrestrial impact on the Laurentide Ice Sheet during

the ice age. The oblique impacts by the glacier ice boulders created inclined conical cavities
the ice age. The oblique impacts by the glacier ice boulders created inclined conical cavities

that transformed into shallow elliptical bays by viscous relaxation. The energy of the glacier
that transformed into shallow elliptical bays by viscous relaxation. The energy of the glacier

ice impacts can be calculated using yield equations that correlate impact energy to
ice impacts can be calculated using yield equations that correlate impact energy to

crater size.
crater size.

In 1989, Professor Jay Melosh published the book "impact Cratering: A Geologic Process".
In 1989, Professor Jay Melosh published the book "impact Cratering: A Geologic Process".

The book contained formulas relating impact energy to crater size. Professor Melosh's
The book contained formulas relating impact energy to crater size. Professor Melosh's

formulas were adapted by Ross Beyer for an online program that computes projectile size
formulas were adapted by Ross Beyer for an online program that computes projectile size

from crater diameter. The calculator takes into consideration the velocity of the projectile,
from crater diameter. The calculator takes into consideration the velocity of the projectile,

its density, the impact angle, and the target characteristics. This calculator can be adapted
its density, the impact angle, and the target characteristics. This calculator can be adapted

for use on the Carolina Bays.
for use on the Carolina Bays.

The program to calculate projectile size from crater diameter assumes that the crater is
The program to calculate projectile size from crater diameter assumes that the crater is

circular. By equating the area of a circle to the area of an ellipse, we find that the
circular. By equating the area of a circle to the area of an ellipse, we find that the

equivalent radius of the ellipse is the square root of the product of its semimajor and semiminor
equivalent radius of the ellipse is the square root of the product of its semimajor and semiminor

axes. The diameter of the ellipse can then be used to calculate the projectile size.
axes. The diameter of the ellipse can then be used to calculate the projectile size.

At this time, this is the best way of adapting the yield equations for the Carolina Bays.
At this time, this is the best way of adapting the yield equations for the Carolina Bays.

On January 11, 1951, the United States Department of Energy established an area for testing
On January 11, 1951, the United States Department of Energy established an area for testing

nuclear devices in Nevada 65 miles northwest of the city of Las Vegas. It was originally
nuclear devices in Nevada 65 miles northwest of the city of Las Vegas. It was originally

called the Nevada Proving Grounds. A November 1951 nuclear test with a yield of 21 kilotons
called the Nevada Proving Grounds. A November 1951 nuclear test with a yield of 21 kilotons

of TNT was the first U.S. nuclear field exercise conducted with live troops maneuvering on
of TNT was the first U.S. nuclear field exercise conducted with live troops maneuvering on

land. The troops in this image were located 6 miles away from the blast. Today the area
land. The troops in this image were located 6 miles away from the blast. Today the area

is covered with hundreds of craters made by nuclear explosions.
is covered with hundreds of craters made by nuclear explosions.

The Nevada test area covers approximately 1,360 square miles of desert and mountainous
The Nevada test area covers approximately 1,360 square miles of desert and mountainous

terrain. The first test began with a 1-kiloton bomb dropped on January 27, 1951. Las Vegas
terrain. The first test began with a 1-kiloton bomb dropped on January 27, 1951. Las Vegas

experienced noticeable seismic effects. The mushroom clouds could be seen from the downtown
experienced noticeable seismic effects. The mushroom clouds could be seen from the downtown

hotels, and the nuclear tests became tourist attractions.
hotels, and the nuclear tests became tourist attractions.

The Sedan Crater was excavated by a nuclear bomb on July 6, 1962. The radioactive fallout
The Sedan Crater was excavated by a nuclear bomb on July 6, 1962. The radioactive fallout

from the test contaminated more US residents than any other nuclear test. The bomb that
from the test contaminated more US residents than any other nuclear test. The bomb that

made this crater was a thermonuclear device with a fission yield of about 30% and a fusion
made this crater was a thermonuclear device with a fission yield of about 30% and a fusion

yield of about 70%. The bomb itself had a diameter of 17 inches, a length of 38 inches,
yield of about 70%. The bomb itself had a diameter of 17 inches, a length of 38 inches,

and a weight of 468 pounds. This was approximately the size of a 55-gallon drum designed to fit
and a weight of 468 pounds. This was approximately the size of a 55-gallon drum designed to fit

inside the warhead of a Minuteman intercontinental ballistic missile.
inside the warhead of a Minuteman intercontinental ballistic missile.

The Sedan explosive device was lowered into a shaft drilled into the desert alluvium 194
The Sedan explosive device was lowered into a shaft drilled into the desert alluvium 194

meters or 636 feet deep. The blast had a yield equivalent to 104 kilotons of TNT and lifted
meters or 636 feet deep. The blast had a yield equivalent to 104 kilotons of TNT and lifted

a dome of earth 90 meters or 300 feet above the desert floor before it vented at three
a dome of earth 90 meters or 300 feet above the desert floor before it vented at three

seconds after detonation. The blast exploded upward and outward displacing more than eleven
seconds after detonation. The blast exploded upward and outward displacing more than eleven

million tons of soil. A circular area of the desert floor five miles across was obscured
million tons of soil. A circular area of the desert floor five miles across was obscured

by fast-expanding dust clouds moving out horizontally from the blast site like a pyroclastic surge.
by fast-expanding dust clouds moving out horizontally from the blast site like a pyroclastic surge.

The resulting Sedan crater is 100 meters or 330 feet deep with a diameter of about 390
The resulting Sedan crater is 100 meters or 330 feet deep with a diameter of about 390

meters or 1,280 feet. The blast caused seismic waves equivalent to an earthquake of 4.75
meters or 1,280 feet. The blast caused seismic waves equivalent to an earthquake of 4.75

magnitude on the Richter scale. The radiation level on the crater rim at 1 hour after burst
magnitude on the Richter scale. The radiation level on the crater rim at 1 hour after burst

was 500 roentgens per hour, but it dropped to 500 milli-roentgens per hour after 27 days.
was 500 roentgens per hour, but it dropped to 500 milli-roentgens per hour after 27 days.

The crater is visited by over 10,000 people per year through the free monthly tours offered
The crater is visited by over 10,000 people per year through the free monthly tours offered

by the U.S. Department of Energy. Overall, 928 tests were conducted in Nevada and there
by the U.S. Department of Energy. Overall, 928 tests were conducted in Nevada and there

were 1,021 detonations because some tests involved more than one device.
were 1,021 detonations because some tests involved more than one device.

The radioactive cloud from the Sedan explosion separated into two plumes, rising to 3.0 km
The radioactive cloud from the Sedan explosion separated into two plumes, rising to 3.0 km

and 4.9 km. That is 10,000 feet and 16,000 feet. The two plumes headed northeast and
and 4.9 km. That is 10,000 feet and 16,000 feet. The two plumes headed northeast and

east toward the Atlantic Ocean. Nuclear fallout dropped along the way as the radioactive clouds
east toward the Atlantic Ocean. Nuclear fallout dropped along the way as the radioactive clouds

drifted over the United States. High levels of radioactivity were detected in Iowa, Nebraska,
drifted over the United States. High levels of radioactivity were detected in Iowa, Nebraska,

South Dakota and Illinois. It has been estimated that the radioactive doses were large enough
South Dakota and Illinois. It has been estimated that the radioactive doses were large enough

to produce 25,000 to 50,000 cases of thyroid cancer around the country, of which 2,500
to produce 25,000 to 50,000 cases of thyroid cancer around the country, of which 2,500

would be expected to be fatal.
would be expected to be fatal.

The book by Prof. Melosh explains how the equations correlating impact energy with crater
The book by Prof. Melosh explains how the equations correlating impact energy with crater

size were developed.
size were developed.

Military pressures of World War II brought explosion craters under scientific scrutiny.
Military pressures of World War II brought explosion craters under scientific scrutiny.

Subsequent concern over the effects of nuclear weapons fueled a large and continuing effort
Subsequent concern over the effects of nuclear weapons fueled a large and continuing effort

to understand the physics of explosion cratering. High velocity impacts attracted interest because
to understand the physics of explosion cratering. High velocity impacts attracted interest because

of the anticipated meteoroid hazard to vehicles flying in space.
of the anticipated meteoroid hazard to vehicles flying in space.

In the chapter entitled Scaling of Crater Dimensions, Prof. Melosh notes that one of
In the chapter entitled Scaling of Crater Dimensions, Prof. Melosh notes that one of

the most frequently asked questions about an impact crater is "how big was the meteorite
the most frequently asked questions about an impact crater is "how big was the meteorite

that made the crater?" Like many simple questions, this has no simple answer. It should be obvious
that made the crater?" Like many simple questions, this has no simple answer. It should be obvious

that the crater size depends upon both the meteorite's size, speed and the angle at which
that the crater size depends upon both the meteorite's size, speed and the angle at which

it struck. It also depends upon factors such as the meteorite's composition, the material
it struck. It also depends upon factors such as the meteorite's composition, the material

and structure of the surface in which the crater forms, and the surface gravity of the
and structure of the surface in which the crater forms, and the surface gravity of the

target planet.
target planet.

The scaling laws were first introduced in 1950 by C.W. Lampson, who studied the results
The scaling laws were first introduced in 1950 by C.W. Lampson, who studied the results

of a series of TNT explosions using charges ranging from 4 to 1,500 kilograms. Lampson's
of a series of TNT explosions using charges ranging from 4 to 1,500 kilograms. Lampson's

work was originally commissioned by the National Defense Research Committee at Princeton, New
work was originally commissioned by the National Defense Research Committee at Princeton, New

Jersey.
Jersey.

Lampson noted that parameters describing different size explosions could be expressed by similar
Lampson noted that parameters describing different size explosions could be expressed by similar

equations if all the distances, such as depth and diameter, were divided by the cube root
equations if all the distances, such as depth and diameter, were divided by the cube root

of the explosive energy or yield. The ratio between crater diameter and the cube root
of the explosive energy or yield. The ratio between crater diameter and the cube root

of the energy was found to be nearly constant, independent of the energy. Crater diameter
of the energy was found to be nearly constant, independent of the energy. Crater diameter

is thus proportional to the cube root of the energy.
is thus proportional to the cube root of the energy.

The relationship between the crater diameter and the cube root of the explosive energy
The relationship between the crater diameter and the cube root of the explosive energy

permits extrapolation of experimental results on small craters to predict the size of craters
permits extrapolation of experimental results on small craters to predict the size of craters

produced by larger explosions as shown by this equation.
produced by larger explosions as shown by this equation.

The results can be generalized for different types of target materials, so that it is possible
The results can be generalized for different types of target materials, so that it is possible

to deduce the depth, volume and diameter of a crater from the energy of the explosion.
to deduce the depth, volume and diameter of a crater from the energy of the explosion.

The table in this image shows the experimental power law scaling constants for various target
The table in this image shows the experimental power law scaling constants for various target

materials. These constants are integrated in the Melosh-Beyer program that calculates
materials. These constants are integrated in the Melosh-Beyer program that calculates

projectile size from crater diameter.
projectile size from crater diameter.

This graph shows the scaled crater diameter versus the scaled depth of burial. From this
This graph shows the scaled crater diameter versus the scaled depth of burial. From this

graph it is possible to determine how deep to bury an explosive to get the maximum crater
graph it is possible to determine how deep to bury an explosive to get the maximum crater

size. The impact of a meteorite would correspond to an explosion at the target surface with
size. The impact of a meteorite would correspond to an explosion at the target surface with

a burial depth close to zero. The nuclear tests that were conducted at different depths
a burial depth close to zero. The nuclear tests that were conducted at different depths

are highlighted in red. When a nuclear device is buried at sufficient depth, the explosion
are highlighted in red. When a nuclear device is buried at sufficient depth, the explosion

may be contained with no release of radioactive materials to the atmosphere.
may be contained with no release of radioactive materials to the atmosphere.

The United States conducted 210 atmospheric nuclear tests between 1945 and 1962, with
The United States conducted 210 atmospheric nuclear tests between 1945 and 1962, with

multiple cameras capturing each event at around 2,400 frames per second. The Lawrence Livermore
multiple cameras capturing each event at around 2,400 frames per second. The Lawrence Livermore

National Laboratory has declassified 497 of these videos and placed them on YouTube.
National Laboratory has declassified 497 of these videos and placed them on YouTube.

Operation Hardtack was a series of 35 nuclear tests conducted by the United States from
Operation Hardtack was a series of 35 nuclear tests conducted by the United States from

April 28 to August 18 in 1958 at the Pacific Proving Grounds. The tests were designed to
April 28 to August 18 in 1958 at the Pacific Proving Grounds. The tests were designed to

identify the radiological exclusion area, and safe zones for ship positions and aircraft
identify the radiological exclusion area, and safe zones for ship positions and aircraft

participation. This film shows the detonation of a 25 kiloton nuclear bomb on a barge in
participation. This film shows the detonation of a 25 kiloton nuclear bomb on a barge in

the Bikini Atoll.
the Bikini Atoll.

Louis Réard, a French fashion designer, introduced a two-piece swimsuit, which he called the
Louis Réard, a French fashion designer, introduced a two-piece swimsuit, which he called the

bikini four days after the first test of an American nuclear weapon at the Bikini Atoll,
bikini four days after the first test of an American nuclear weapon at the Bikini Atoll,

which is part of the Marshall Islands in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. Nuclear testing
which is part of the Marshall Islands in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. Nuclear testing

began in 1946 after the residents were evacuated. Sixty-seven tests were conducted, many of
began in 1946 after the residents were evacuated. Sixty-seven tests were conducted, many of

which produced significant fallout in the region. The testing concluded in 1958. The
which produced significant fallout in the region. The testing concluded in 1958. The

inhabitants who were evacuated are still waiting for the two billion dollars in compensation
inhabitants who were evacuated are still waiting for the two billion dollars in compensation

assessed by the Nuclear Claims Tribunal. The islanders and their descendants live in exile
assessed by the Nuclear Claims Tribunal. The islanders and their descendants live in exile

because the islands remain contaminated with high levels of radiation.
because the islands remain contaminated with high levels of radiation.

Nuclear energy is sometimes touted as the energy of the future, but the long history
Nuclear energy is sometimes touted as the energy of the future, but the long history

of radiation exposure from atomic bomb tests and nuclear plant accidents is a cause for
of radiation exposure from atomic bomb tests and nuclear plant accidents is a cause for

concern. On March 28, 1979, the Three Mile Island power plant, near Middletown, Pennsylvania,
concern. On March 28, 1979, the Three Mile Island power plant, near Middletown, Pennsylvania,

was the scene of the worst commercial nuclear accident in the United States. Radiation was
was the scene of the worst commercial nuclear accident in the United States. Radiation was

released and thousands of residents were evacuated from the area. Unit 2 of the Three Mile Island
released and thousands of residents were evacuated from the area. Unit 2 of the Three Mile Island

Generating Station shut down in 1979. Unit 1 continued providing electricity, but it
Generating Station shut down in 1979. Unit 1 continued providing electricity, but it

was permanently shut down on September 20, 2019. The Three Mile Island power plant is
was permanently shut down on September 20, 2019. The Three Mile Island power plant is

currently being decommissioned and dismantled.
currently being decommissioned and dismantled.

The Chernobyl nuclear disaster occurred on April 26, 1986, at the No. 4 reactor in the
The Chernobyl nuclear disaster occurred on April 26, 1986, at the No. 4 reactor in the

Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, near the city of Pripyat in the north of the Ukrainian Soviet
Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, near the city of Pripyat in the north of the Ukrainian Soviet

Socialist Republic. The accident started during a safety test on the nuclear reactor, but
Socialist Republic. The accident started during a safety test on the nuclear reactor, but

a combination of unstable conditions and reactor design flaws caused an uncontrolled nuclear
a combination of unstable conditions and reactor design flaws caused an uncontrolled nuclear

chain reaction that resulted in an open-air reactor core fire that released airborne radioactive
chain reaction that resulted in an open-air reactor core fire that released airborne radioactive

contamination for about nine days.
contamination for about nine days.

By May of 1986, the radiation from Chernobyl had spread throughout much of Europe. More
By May of 1986, the radiation from Chernobyl had spread throughout much of Europe. More

than 30 years after the Chernobyl disaster, milk in some parts of Ukraine still has radioactivity
than 30 years after the Chernobyl disaster, milk in some parts of Ukraine still has radioactivity

levels up to five times the official safe limit.
levels up to five times the official safe limit.

The city of Pripyat was founded on February 4, 1970 as a community specifically designated
The city of Pripyat was founded on February 4, 1970 as a community specifically designated

to operate and maintain the nearby Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. After the disaster, the
to operate and maintain the nearby Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. After the disaster, the

residents were evacuated and the areas surrounding the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, including
residents were evacuated and the areas surrounding the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, including

the city of Pripyat, have become abandoned ghost towns. Some residents have returned
the city of Pripyat, have become abandoned ghost towns. Some residents have returned

to nearby villages despite dangerous levels of radiation. It is estimated that the zone
to nearby villages despite dangerous levels of radiation. It is estimated that the zone

around the Chernobyl plant will not be habitable for up to 20,000 years. That is twice as long
around the Chernobyl plant will not be habitable for up to 20,000 years. That is twice as long

as our current human civilization.
as our current human civilization.

The Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant accident was started by an earthquake and tsunami on
The Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant accident was started by an earthquake and tsunami on

March 11, 2011. When the earthquake was detected, the plant automatically shut down the power-generating
March 11, 2011. When the earthquake was detected, the plant automatically shut down the power-generating

fission reactors.
fission reactors.

The shutdown and other electrical grid supply problems cut off the electricity supply to
The shutdown and other electrical grid supply problems cut off the electricity supply to

the reactors, and their emergency diesel generators automatically started. The generators were
the reactors, and their emergency diesel generators automatically started. The generators were

designed to provide electrical power to the pumps that circulated coolant through the
designed to provide electrical power to the pumps that circulated coolant through the

reactor cores. However, the earthquake also generated a tsunami 14 meters high that flooded
reactor cores. However, the earthquake also generated a tsunami 14 meters high that flooded

the lower parts of reactor area and caused the failure of the emergency generators that
the lower parts of reactor area and caused the failure of the emergency generators that

powered the circulating pumps.
powered the circulating pumps.

The loss of reactor core cooling led to three nuclear meltdowns, three hydrogen explosions,
The loss of reactor core cooling led to three nuclear meltdowns, three hydrogen explosions,

and the release of radioactive contamination.
and the release of radioactive contamination.

The city of Futaba, 4 kilometers west of the Fukoshima plant, was evacuated after the nuclear
The city of Futaba, 4 kilometers west of the Fukoshima plant, was evacuated after the nuclear

meltdown. Areas further away from the power station have partially recovered and the government
meltdown. Areas further away from the power station have partially recovered and the government

has declared them safe for residents. Futaba is supposed to reopen for the start of the
has declared them safe for residents. Futaba is supposed to reopen for the start of the

torch relay of the Tokyo Summer Olympics after being deserted for nine years, but the Japanese
torch relay of the Tokyo Summer Olympics after being deserted for nine years, but the Japanese

government has decided to exclude overseas spectators from attending as part of efforts
government has decided to exclude overseas spectators from attending as part of efforts

to prevent the spread of the Covid-19 virus. The start of the Olympic torch relay is supposed
to prevent the spread of the Covid-19 virus. The start of the Olympic torch relay is supposed

to showcase the recovery from Fukushima’s nuclear accident, but some residents think
to showcase the recovery from Fukushima’s nuclear accident, but some residents think

that their hometown may never return to normal.
that their hometown may never return to normal.

France is a nuclear power like the United States. It conducted its first nuclear test
France is a nuclear power like the United States. It conducted its first nuclear test

in the Sahara Desert near Algeria's border with Mauritania on February 13, 1960. This
in the Sahara Desert near Algeria's border with Mauritania on February 13, 1960. This

area is about 2,200 kilometers from Lyon, France, but in a strange twist of fate, windstorms
area is about 2,200 kilometers from Lyon, France, but in a strange twist of fate, windstorms

from the Sahara desert have carried radioactive dust back to France. This image shows a view
from the Sahara desert have carried radioactive dust back to France. This image shows a view

of Lyon in February of 2021 with a sky colored by red Saharan dust that contains cesium-137
of Lyon in February of 2021 with a sky colored by red Saharan dust that contains cesium-137

from the French nuclear tests.
from the French nuclear tests.

The nuclear tests by multiple nations have released radioactive isotopes that make it
The nuclear tests by multiple nations have released radioactive isotopes that make it

difficult to do accurate radioisotope dating. A paper published in 2009 by Richard Firestone
difficult to do accurate radioisotope dating. A paper published in 2009 by Richard Firestone

showed that four Carolina Bays out of five had radiocarbon dates in the future, presumably
showed that four Carolina Bays out of five had radiocarbon dates in the future, presumably

from an unknown source of carbon-14 enrichment. This makes it impossible to use radiocarbon
from an unknown source of carbon-14 enrichment. This makes it impossible to use radiocarbon

to date the emplacement of the Carolina Bays.
to date the emplacement of the Carolina Bays.

The Anthropocene is a proposed geological epoch dating from the commencement of significant
The Anthropocene is a proposed geological epoch dating from the commencement of significant

human impact on Earth's geology and ecosystems. Various start dates for the Anthropocene have
human impact on Earth's geology and ecosystems. Various start dates for the Anthropocene have

been proposed, but the peak in radionuclides from atomic bomb testing during the 1950s
been proposed, but the peak in radionuclides from atomic bomb testing during the 1950s

is the most conspicuous. The beginning of the Anthropocene is marked by the detonation
is the most conspicuous. The beginning of the Anthropocene is marked by the detonation

of the first atomic bomb in 1945.
of the first atomic bomb in 1945.