The Soviet-Afghan War was one of the deadliest conflicts of the late Cold War
era. But even beyond its immediate casualties and the instability it brought to the wider region,
the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan is one of the most important wars of our times,
as it holds an outsized influence on world politics today. In this episode,
we will see how this war started and how the USSR lost it and was forced to retreat.
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In the previous episode, we covered the operation Storm-333 of December 1979, during which the
Soviet special forces eliminated the president of the newly-established Democratic Republic
of Afghanistan Hafizullah Amin, in hopes that his successor Babrak Karmal would be able to stabilize
the country. In reality, the presence of the Red Army, instead of being a stabilizing presence,
triggered the creation of a deadly insurgency. The Soviet Politburo expected that the invasion would
be a quick and simple affair, but they were warned by the military that it would not be the case.
The leadership still decided on invasion, as Brezhnev sought to use the 1968 invasion of
Czechoslovakia as a template: He wanted the troops to return by the end of January 1980,
though it would become apparent quite soon that retreat was no longer an option.
The USSR’s intervention garnered massive international condemnation,
especially from Western, Muslim and Non-Aligned countries, and this event would bring back the
Cold War to a level not seen in many years. The UN adopted a resolution
deploring the Soviet invasion – a resolution for which an overwhelming majority in the UN voted.
The Soviets were also opposed by the Islamic resistance movements, collectively known as
the mujahideen. They consisted of many smaller factions, divided along tribal and ideological
lines. Meeting in the Pakistani city of Peshawar in late January, six Sunni mujahideen resistance
groups banded together and announced the formation of a united Islamic Alliance for the Liberation of
Afghanistan. The most notable of these groups was Burhanuddin Rabbani’s Jamiat-e Islami,
whose members included Ismail Khan of Herat, Naqib Alikozai and Ahmad Shah Massoud
of Panjshir. The most powerful and most fundamentalist of the mujahideen leaders,
Gulbuddin Hekmatyar boycotted the meeting, not wanting his power to be disputed by the others.
In the following years, millions of dollars in financial aid and weaponry flooded into Pakistan
from the USA, China, Saudi Arabia, and other donors. It was there that the mujahideen received
training from the Pakistani Armed Forces and the Inter-Services Intelligence. Later on, Abdullah
Yusuf Azzam, the so-called father of modern jihad, and Osama bin Laden established their own funding
channels and training schools. Although financial aid came from the aforementioned countries,
it is reported that even more was received from the various religious organizations within
the Muslim world. Azam and bin Laden were also responsible for the recruitment of the majority
of foreign volunteers. Their organization, Maktab al-Khidamat, the de facto predecessor of al Qaeda,
played a significant role during the war. Karmal felt that the situation could
not be completely entrusted to the notoriously unreliable Afghan army
and demanded that the Soviet military provide aid to the DRA’s army in order to stabilize
the country. It was envisioned to last for only a short period of time, however, the Red Army ended
up bearing the brunt of the fighting. Indeed, only several days after Operation Storm-333,
on New Year’s Day, they had to put down a mutiny by Afghan soldiers in Kandahar. Simultaneously,
violence started breaking out in Kabul, Ghazni and Herat. On January 5th, as Soviet forces were
taking control of Jalalabad, three battalions of the DRA deserted during the operation.
Initially, the Soviet forces were mainly focused on securing the major cities, infrastructure,
and civil and military installations. Therefore, they did not seek combat with the insurgents,
fighting only in self-defense. It was during this initial phase of the conflict that Soviet troops
engaged in looting, which drew the ire of the already uncooperative Afghan rural population.
Merely a few weeks after the Kremlin hailed the entire operation as a resounding success,
stiff resistance by local Afghans began hounding Soviet troops. The initial resistance was intense,
however, the Soviet forces decisively defeated the mujahideen in open battle.
It was then that they realized that their best chance for survival would be guerilla warfare.
For the rest of the war, the insurgents mostly engaged in sabotage missions, cutting power lines,
blowing up radio stations, and attacking critical communication and supply lines.
Considering the fact that going over all of the smaller offensives,
raids and ambushes would be impossible, we will cover the most notable encounters from the war.
One of the most crucial points of interest during the war was the Panjshir river valley,
to the north of Kabul. The valley offered easy access to the Bagram military base, Kabul and more
importantly, the Salang pass in the Hindu Kush, through which much of the Soviet reinforcements
and supplies passed. From the earliest moments of the war, the Salang pass was targeted by the
mujahideen, causing significant casualties and logistical difficulties to the Soviets. Moreover,
the valley was under the control of Ahmad Shah Massoud, the “Lion of Panjshir”, a skilled
commander who turned out to be one of the most renowned guerilla leaders of the 20th century.
Realizing the strategic significance of the Panjshir valley, the Red Army launched
an operation to capture it in April 1980. Three Soviet battalions, under the command
of General Pechevoy were chosen for the task, together with a battalion from the Afghan army.
Besides these units, the 9th Company of the 345th Airborne Regiment, a unit previously
involved in Operation Storm-333, had the role of securing the mountain passes at Sayat, east of
Bagram. They rode in armored BTR vehicles and were accompanied by Mi-8 transports and Mi-24 gunships.
Massoud’s forces did not number more than 1000 men and they were scattered
throughout the valley. Unlike the Soviets, the mujahideen were mostly armed with outdated rifles
and whatever equipment they managed to capture in previous raids. Almost as soon as the Soviet
forces had entered the valley, they came under fire from the mujahideen. They left
their exposed vehicles immediately and took cover behind some boulders. This was of little help,
as they were unable to see their enemies and were being picked off one by one.
In an effort to take the fight to the insurgents, they climbed the mountains,
only to find nobody there. The mujahideen did not wish to engage in a direct confrontation,
so they moved further into the valley. Once at the nearby village of Ruha, Soviet forces
came under fire once again. Unable to discern which houses the fire is coming from, the tanks
started destroying them indiscriminately. After securing the village, they further advanced to
the provincial capital of Bazarak. The insurgents suffered some casualties during this operation,
but they ultimately retreated to the mountains and waited for the Soviets to leave.
Before the end of the operation, a garrison of DRA soldiers was left behind in Ruha, with the goal of
hindering further mujahideen raids and providing a haven for offensives into the Panjshir valley.
However, the garrison in Ruha proved to be more of a nuisance for the Soviets than for the Massoud.
The Afghan army, suffering from high desertion rates, low morale, and little combat training,
was besieged shortly following the departure of Soviet forces. The two subsequent campaigns into
the Panjshir valley had the goal of alleviating the pressure on the Afghan army. Soviet aircraft
provided very little assistance, as they could not fire on an enemy that they could not see.
In December of 1980, Ruha was finally abandoned, leaving Ahmad Shah Massoud in control of most of
the valley. The Soviets made an unsuccessful foray into the valley in 1981, however,
their fiercest offensive took place in May 1982. Before the Panjshir V offensive would start,
the Soviets prepared with a thorough reconnaissance of the enemy.
What the reconnaissance found were 95 detachments with up to 3000 men, 100 anti-air systems,
several supply points, and strong fortifications. Reconnaissance data, as a rule, never disclose
more than half of the actual situation, which led the Soviet commanders to the conclusion that they
were dealing with an extremely powerful foe. For this operation, the Soviets used one regiment each
from the 108th and 201st Motorized Rifle Divisions and the 103rd Airborne Division, the 66th Separate
Motorized Rifle Brigade, and subunits from the 860th and 191st Separate Motorized Rifle Regiments
and the 345th Airborne Regiment. Together with several units from the DRA’s forces,
the total amount of troops numbered around 12000. The operation was envisioned to have two thrusts,
the main one in the Panjshir river valley from Bagram to Evim and a diversionary attack along
the Gorband river valley. The Soviets also employed a disinformation campaign – they told
the Afghan army command that the diversionary attack was the main focus of the campaign,
knowing that the information would inevitably be leaked to the mujahideen.
The first phase of the offensive started on the 15th May, with the diversionary attack. This plan
achieved positive results, as the mujahideen sent a large number of troops towards Gorband.
On the 16th, Soviet units captured the area around the entrance to the Panjshir valley
and placed artillery in firing positions. On the morning of the 17th, the main offensive started.
Aerial and artillery bombardments were undertaken across the length of the river valley, while the
main Soviet and Afghan forces began advancing. Meanwhile, a Soviet Motorized Rifle Batallion
and Afghan battalion landed near Ruha and Bazarak. A few more landings took place over the first day,
bringing the total amount of troops near the two settlements to 1200. Aerial assault units,
using the element of surprise, captured landing zones, high points, and enemy strongholds.
The first day’s success allowed the main body of the attackers to advance along three approaches.
During a confrontation with the enemy in a canyon, Soviet troops would hit the enemy with helicopter
gunship fire, artillery fire, and mortar fire. After this, they would use a subunit to bypass
the ridge on the height to create a fire sack and complete the destruction of the mujahideen.
Simultaneously, they would employ remotely delivered mines on paths and mountain passes
leading out of the valley to the north and south. This served to isolate the battle
area from the influx of fresh reserves from the neighboring regions around the Panjshir
and to prevent the withdrawal of remaining, defeated groups into other provinces.
On the 20th, Soviet forces landed at the final point of the operation, Evim. In spite of Soviet
and Afghan success, the mujahideen continued their stubborn defense by adopting a mobile defensive
strategy. By the end of the battle, the Soviets had successfully removed enemy fighters from the
valley, destroyed their anti-aircraft systems, and disrupted supply routes from Pakistan. From
the 22nd to the 24th, the attacking forces had retreated to Bagram. Although the operation was,
by all means, a success, the insurgents did not suffer significant casualties, thereby leaving the
tenacious Massoud with his most powerful asset, his men, relatively intact. Massoud continued
his insurgency, forcing the Soviets to ask for a truce in January 1983. This truce allowed him to
further strengthen his position, at the cost of being berated by the other mujahideen leaders.
As the war continued, Soviet forces progressively delegated more responsibility to the Afghan army.
This became especially true after Mikhail Gorbachev took power in the USSR in 1985.
He saw the Afghan conflict as a “bleeding wound” for the Soviet Union
and deeming Karmal a weak and unpopular ruler, replaced him with Mohammad Najibullah in 1986.
With Soviet assistance, the DRA’s army grew significantly, however, it was still plagued
by the same issues as before. In 1987, Soviet troops started leaving Afghanistan.
In November of 1987, the Soviets launched one of their last great operations in the war – Operation
Magistral. The aim of this operation was to secure the road between Gardez and the besieged city of
Khost. For the conduct of this operation, the 40th Army assembled the 108th Motorized Rifle Division,
103rd Airborne Division, 56th Separate Air Assault Brigade, 345th Airborne Regiment,
and the 191st Separate Motorized Rifle Regiment. The Afghan government provided the 8th, 11th,
12th, 14th, and 25th Infantry Divisions, the 15th Tank Brigade, and the Commando regiment.
The area around the road was heavily defended by the mujahideen. General Boris Gromov ordered
dummy paratroopers to be dropped near the area so as to reveal the positions of the enemies.
Soviet artillery barrages and airstrikes were precise and the Afghan commandos started
advancing on the Satukandav pass by the beginning of December. Soviet paratroopers started joining
them for the assault by December 19th. Paratrooper units were flown to strategic heights to cover the
armored columns making their way up the road. One of the most important of such places was a
cliff at the top of Hill 3234. The already famous 9th Company of the 345th Airborne Regiment was
chosen for the capture and defense of this hill. Shortly after landing, the paratroopers came
under fire from the insurgents and Pakistani commandos from two sides. In spite of being
heavily outnumbered, they defended their position stalwartly. The 9th company was assisted by
artillery strikes that were extremely risky, due to the proximity of the Soviet troops to
the mujahideen. Just as they were running out of ammunition, reinforcements arrived via helicopter.
The fighting continued until morning when the insurgents ceased their attacks. The mujahideen
and Pakistani lost over 200 men, while the paratroopers lost 6. It was through this
battle that the 9th Company achieved its legendary status. The operation was a success and Khost was
relieved. As with all Soviet successes during the war, this one was also short-lived. Their
inability to capitalize on hard-fought victories simply meant that a stalemate was inevitable.
On the 14th of April 1988, the USSR signed the Geneva Accords, thus committing to the withdrawal
of troops from Afghanistan. The withdrawal began on the 15th of May and the last of the
Soviet troops left on the 15th of February 1989. The Soviet Union lost over 14000 men to the war,
mostly in the numerous raids and ambushes by the mujahideen. The mujahideen themselves
lost more than 200000 men, while civilian casualties were in the millions.
Although not one of the main factors, it is undeniable that the Soviet-Afghan war
played a substantial role in the fall of the Soviet Union. The war, together with
the 1986 Chernobyl Disaster damaged the Soviet Union’s reputation and its aura of strength.
The conflict left an even more complicated legacy for the country where it was fought. The war did
not end for Afghanistan with the departure of the Red Army or even after the 1992 fall of the DRA.
With no end in sight to the conflict to this very day, it is impossible to know the full
ramifications of the conflict, but it still exerts an outsized influence on global affairs.
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