Translator: Rhonda Jacobs Reviewer: Ellen Maloney
Imagine this...
You have just won ten million dollars in the lottery.
Congratulations.
(Laughter)
You have just eaten the most delicious, warm, chocolate brownie
that has ever been baked.
(Laughter)
You...
have just had sex.
(Laughter)
And you...
have just done all three at the same time. Congratulations to you, too.
(Laughter)
In these situations, our brains produce chemicals called neurotransmitters
which give us these great feelings of energy, excitement and happiness.
And without such chemicals inside of us,
we wouldn't feel such emotions during such pleasant circumstances.
So instead, imagine this:
You've just been fired.
You're about to sit an exam.
You have depression.
In these situations, our brains, instead, produce different chemicals,
making us feel stressed and anxious.
The highs and lows of life are controlled by our emotions
and these chemicals in our brains.
This vital organ inside all of us
that controls everything that we feel, think and do.
However, as a biologist, I've always found it strange to comprehend
that every feeling, thought, and action that we have
is controlled by a three-pound, soggy lump of cells inside of our heads,
until I discovered that this might not be the case.
The story I want to share with you today unfolds a fascinating new revelation
in our understanding of human physiology,
that we each have a second brain,
another organ in our body
which controls as much of our physical and mental functions
as the brain in our heads,
and which may be the key link between modern disease epidemics, globally,
from obesity to cardiovascular disease, maybe even to mental health.
But first, to give you a little introduction to this story,
I want to tell you a little bit about my background.
I was brought up in a family of psychologists.
My mom is a clinical psychologist;
my dad a professor of psychology in a university;
my sister even has a PhD in psychology.
So when it came to me going to university, I wanted to study something different.
I'd heard enough about the brain and how it worked at home
so I wanted to study something new.
I considered what I was interested in,
and I figured out that from a very early age,
I'd had a big interest in food.
I loved eating food.
So, I decided to study human nutrition.
And this was great because I got to study food,
how it affected our bodies,
how it could contribute to disease,
and more importantly, how we could use it to fight and prevent disease.
This story begins back in 1845
with the birth of a curious young boy in Russia
who became an incredible man,
but who was forgotten by history and medicine.
Ilya Mechnikov was fascinated by everything in nature,
and by the age of eight, he was taking notes
on all the living things in his vibrant back garden.
He became so good at science that he discovered the role of phagocytes,
some crucial cells in our immune systems, for which he won the Nobel Prize in 1908.
But it was his science after winning the Nobel Prize
that was even more crucial to our understanding of human health,
through a tale of discovery, death, and self-experimentation.
See, everyone in this room has something in common.
We all spent the first nine months of our existence
inside our mothers' wombs.
And this was essentially a sterile environment
where no other living things existed, just you.
But as you emerged into this world,
you were smothered in an invisible coating of microbes,
friendly microbes from your mother's birth canal.
And these bacteria grew to form what is now
a three-pound invisible organ inside your large intestine,
the same weight as your brain,
and which has become known as our microbiota, or microbiome.
And this invisible organ has grown so much, in fact,
that right now, 90 per cent of the cells in your body are bacterial cells;
only ten per cent are your own human cells.
So you are more bacteria than you are human.
(Laughter)
This ecosystem of microbes in your gut is as diverse as the Amazon rainforest.
Thousands of species all with different functions.
And your health is incredibly dependent
upon the life and vibrancy of this rainforest.
Your gut bacteria digest certain foods,
produce essential vitamins and hormones,
respond to medicine and infections,
control your blood sugar and blood cholesterol levels.
Meaning the types of bacteria in your intestines
can significantly control your risk of certain diseases
from obesity to diabetes, maybe even osteoporosis.
They're involved in just about every process in your body.
They function almost as a second brain.
Well, Ilya Mechnikov may have figured this out himself in 1892.
He lived in France, in Paris at the time,
where a deadly cholera epidemic had broken out
with thousands of deaths.
Naturally, as a scientist, he decided the best way to study this
was to drink a broth of cholera himself.
Remarkably, he didn't get sick.
So again, as a true scientist, he needed to increase his sample size,
so he recruited a colleague to do the same thing.
This guy didn't get sick either.
But when he recruited another colleague to do the same,
this poor guy got critically ill and very nearly died.
By studying cholera under the microscope,
Metchnikov found that certain species of bacteria from the human intestines
supported and stimulated cholera's growth, while other species prevented it.
He subsequently claimed that our gut microbiota, or our gut bacteria,
were essential for human health,
and that the right balance of microbes inside of us
could help stave off disease.
However, popular understanding at the time,
was that the human gut was a noxious reservoir of toxins.
Surgeons had even begun removing entire sections of human intestines
in patients with gut discomfort.
Mechnikov's death in 1916
meant that his ideas that our gut bacteria were good for us were forgotten.
A decade later, antibiotics were discovered,
and drastically became overused.
C-sections became common.
Diets became Westernized.
A war was waged on microbes and we spent a century trying to kill them,
which turned our intestinal rainforests into barren wastelands.
This Nobel Prize winner's ideas were lost in time.
Some of the implications of this were identified recently.
See, right now, one in three children in America are born by C-section,
meaning they don't get this initial innoculum or coating of bacteria
that's been designed by evolution to be in the mother's birth canal.
Instead, they're first coated with other bacteria on the skin
or in the hospital environment which has contributed
to up to a 25 per cent increased risk of obesity,
asthma, immune deficiencies
and inflammatory bowel disease in later life.
Fortunately, in recent times,
we've realized we must restore our relationship
with gut microbes for our own physical health.
However yet, we've still completely underestimated
their role as our second brains.
And this is something that I'm researching.
And I learned this first through the intriguing story of a mouse.
If mice become colonized by the microbe Toxoplasma gondii,
an intriguing thing happens:
they lose their fear of cats.
(Laughter)
In fact, they become attracted to cats.
(Laughter)
In essence, they go a bit mad, and unfortunately for them,
usually end up as dinner for cats.
(Laughter)
So, this microbe ingested by this animal takes control of its brain,
and changes the way that it thinks and behaves.
So, by delving deep inside the intestinal jungle of bacteria in our intestines,
we've begun to find some incredible discoveries
that are changing our appreciation for bacteria forever.
See, our bellies and brains
are physically and biochemically connected in a number of ways.
First of all, our intestines are physically linked to our brain
through the vagus nerve
which sends signals in both directions.
Interestingly, even though if this is severed,
our intestines can still continue to function fully
without a connection to the brain, suggesting they have a mind of their own.
Secondly, our brains are made up of a hundred billion neurons
which continuously send messages to tell our bodies how to work and behave.
Well, interestingly, our guts have a hundred million neurons.
Thirdly, our microbiomes are the centerpoint of our immune systems,
meaning a disturbance down here
can cause subtle immune reactions all around the body,
which if prolonged, can affect brain health.
And finally, do we remember
our chocolate-eating, lottery-winning womanizer here in the front row?
He demonstrated for us the neurotransmitters
are these chemicals that can change the way we think and behave,
and how we feel.
As it turns out, most of these neurotransmitters
are also produced in our gut,
none more so than serotonin, nature's antidepressant,
90 per cent of which is produced in our intestines,
less than ten per cent is produced in our brains.
Meaning the types of bacteria inside of you
may control the way that you think and behave.
Has stress ever messed with your insides?
Have you ever had a gut feeling?
Or butterflies in your stomach?
You may have to think twice about that.
So, you can see, despite my naive reluctance as a teenager,
I've begun to study not only one brain, but two brains.
In the APC Microbiome Institute in Ireland,
we're fascinated in this link between our belly and our brains,
and we research how our modern diets and lifestyles
are impacting this gut-brain relationship,
and how we can design interventions to target the microbiota
in order to prevent and treat chronic diseases.
For example, we've shown
that the types of fats that you eat throughout life
can drastically change the types of bacteria
that decide to reside in your intestines.
In addition, we've shown that by feeding specific strains of bacteria,
it can enhance memory, stress behavior, and stress hormone levels in animals.
And in addition to a number of other researchers worldwide,
we've identified lists of foods that can act as prebiotics,
or foods that can stimulate the growth of healthy bacteria inside our intestines.
To me it's fascinating
that our health is so dependent not only upon nourishing ourselves,
but upon feeding other living microorganisms inside of us,
meaning future strategies to target and treat chronic diseases,
including brain health, may depend on targeting or feeding
our gut microbiomes.
As it turns out, Ilya Mechnikov may have known this himself.
See, much earlier in his life he married,
but his wife quickly became sick with tuberculosis and died.
The stress and trauma of this
led Metchnikov to take an overdoes of opium.
Thankfully, he survived.
He then re-married,
and when his second wife got sick with the deadly typhoid fever,
this time he injected himself with a deadly tick-borne disease.
Thankfully, he survived again.
It was only after this,
Metchnivok began studying and appreciating the microbiota.
He moved to Paris to work in the Pasteur Institute
where he began hypothesizing the right balance of microbes in the gut
could help stave off disease,
and he published a series of books and lectures
describing how to achieve this and prolong life.
Despite the stress and mental turmoil that he'd experienced in earlier life,
he spent the rest of his life
dedicated and obsessed with researching how to prolong human life.
He began studying an interesting group of people in Eastern Europe
who were living exceptionally long lives,
and he noted that they all drank bacterial-fermented milk every day
and he suggested that this contributed to their longevity.
Interestingly, he began drinking this bacterial-fermented milk himself,
and seemingly lived a healthy life
rid of the stress and mental turmoil he'd experienced in earlier life.
Maybe that was just coincidental.
He described the time in Paris as the happiest of his life.
But Metchnikov died in France in 1916 at the age of 71.
The life expectancy in France at the time was 40.
As humans, we all need to adopt a greater appreciation
for the microbes inside of us.
The incidental war we've waged on bacteria over the last century
has led to bacterial extinction and sparked an epidemic of modern plagues.
I'm here on a Fulbright
to research how we can restore our relationship with microbes,
and how this can be used to prevent and treat chronic diseases.
But I feel that we all have the responsibility and the potential
to follow in Ilya Metchnikov's footsteps.
Not only to revive his scientific findings that were lost in time,
but to adopt his desire to prolong healthy, human life.
Whether it's by educating ourselves on the risks and benefits of C-sections,
restricting unnecessary antibiotic use,
or by adopting a gut-friendly diet and lifestyle,
we can all support the life of microbes that we've evolved to live alongside.
So imagine this:
Imagine you've just eaten chocolate, or won the lottery,
sat an exam or just been fired.
Imagine your thoughts, your emotions, your behavior, and your health
could be controlled by a hidden organ that you knew little about.
Ilya Metchnikov fought to not only prolong healthy human life,
but healthy microbial life.
I feel we can all contribute to this fight worth fighting
for our own health, but more importantly, for future generations' health
by restoring the relationship between microbe and man.
There is some food for thought.
Thank you very much.
(Applause)