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Cervical cancer is a cancer of the female reproductive system that originates in the
cervix.
It’s one of the most common cancers in women and it’s usually the result of an infection
by the human papillomavirus, or HPV.
It has also played a huge role in scientific research thanks to cervical cancer cells from
a woman called Henrietta Lacks, which were the first human cells to be grown in a laboratory
and which continue to be used to this day in labs around the world.
The cervix is also called the neck of the uterus, and it protrudes into the vagina.
The interior cavity of the cervix is called the cervical canal and it can be divided into
two sections.
The endocervix is closer to the uterus, not visible to the naked eye, and it’s lined
by columnar epithelial cells that produce mucus.
The ectocervix is continuous with the vagina and it’s lined by mature squamous epithelial
cells.
Where the squamous epithelium of the ectocervix and the columnar epithelium of the endocervix
meet, there’s a line called the squamocolumnar junction.
And right where the two types of cells meet, there’s the transformation zone - which
is where sub-columnar reserve cells multiply and transform into immature squamous epithelium
through a process called metaplasia.
Normally, mature cells are stuck in the G1, or Growth 1, phase of the cell cycle, which
is when cells grow and take care of regular cellular business, like synthesizing proteins
and producing energy.
Eventually, whenever new cells are needed, they’ll exit G1 and keep going through the
rest of the cell cycle to eventually divide into two new identical daughter cells.
Sometimes though, cells can be pushed out of G1 and go through the cell reproduction
cycle faster than the body needs new cells.
This uncontrolled growth and multiplication is called dysplasia and it’s exactly how
cervical cancer develops from precancerous cells.
Dysplasia in the epithelial layer of the cervix, also called cervical intraepithelial neoplasia
or squamous epithelial lesion, usually starts in the basal layer of the transformation zone,
typically in the immature squamous epithelium there.
In most cases, cervical intraepithelial neoplasia is caused by an HPV infection.
There are over a 100 different types of HPV, but only about 15 of them have been linked
with cervical cancer.
Specifically, HPV-16 is responsible for more than half of all cervical cancers.
The virus is like a house guest that overstays their welcome and starts using the kitchen
to make all their favourite foods: it inserts itself into the immature squamous cells of
the transformation zone and then integrates its DNA into the host DNA.
Using the host DNA, HPV makes huge amounts of two of its proteins, E6 and E7.
These proteins are responsible for pushing mature squamous cells through the cell replication
cycle by blocking the action of tumor suppressor genes, like p53.
The end result is uncontrolled replication of cervical epithelial cells which are resistant
to apoptosis, or normal programmed cell death.
Now, you might see a couple of different ways of describing the stages of cervical intraepithelial
neoplasia, but the most common is based on how much of the epithelium is involved.
Grade 1 cervical intraepithelial neoplasia affects the lower one-third of the epithelium,
thickness-wise.
Grade 2 affects two-thirds, Grade 3 affects almost all of the epithelium, and finally
carcinoma in situ affects the entire thickness of the epithelium.
The higher the grade, the more likely the dysplasia will evolve into cancer.
Eventually, carcinoma in situ can progress to invasive cervical cancer, which is when
cancerous cells break through the epithelial basement membrane and into the cervical stroma.
Then, it can spread to neighboring tissues, like epithelial layers of the uterus and of
the vagina.
Finally, it can pass through the pelvic wall and affect the bladder and rectum.
Lastly, it can also spread via the lymphatic and circulatory systems to other areas of
the body like the liver and lungs.
Because HPV tends to invade squamous cells first, the majority of cervical cancer cases
are squamous cell carcinomas.
The second most common type, also associated with HPV, is cervical adenocarcinoma, which
involves the epithelial gland cells of the cervix.
But either way, the progression from HPV infection to cervical intraepithelial neoplasia to cancer
is generally slow and it can take between 10 and 20 years before invasive cervical cancer
develops.
Ok, now, since HPV is a sexually transmitted infection, the risk of developing cervical
cancer is highest in females who do not use condoms and have multiple sexual partners.
Not every HPV infection results in cervical cancer, though.
In fact, the immune system fights off most HPV infections.
So it’s believed that there are other factors involved.
For example, the risk increases depending on the type of HPV, how long the infection
lasts, and if the person is immunocompromised.
Environmental factors like smoking also increase the risk.
But the good news is that vaccination against HPV immunizes against several HPV types linked
with cervical cancer, including HPV-16.
The first symptom of cervical cancer is often abnormal vaginal bleeding, especially after
sexual intercourse.
Other symptoms include vaginal discomfort, vaginal discharge with an unpleasant smell,
and pain when urinating.
If the cancer has spread beyond the pelvic wall, it can cause symptoms like constipation
and bloody urine.
Screening for cervical intraepithelial neoplasia and cervical cancer is done with a Pap smear
with high-risk HPV testing.
Pap tests are so good at detecting precancerous cells that screening recommends a pap smear
every 3 years for females between 21 and 65 years of age.
Together with the HPV vaccine, this has contributed significantly to the drop in cases of cervical
cancer worldwide.
Now, during a Pap test, some cells from the transformation zone are collected with a brush
and then they’re examined under a microscope for dysplasia.
If the Pap test comes back positive for dysplasia, it may be followed up with a colposcopy, which
is when a magnifying device called a colposcope is used to get a zoomed in view of the cervix,
and then obtain biopsies.
Treatment options for cervical intraepithelial neoplasia include cryosurgery, where liquid
nitrous oxide is used to freeze and kill abnormal cells, and conization, where the transformation
zone and some or all of the endocervix is removed surgically.
Conization can be done with a scalpel, called cold-knife conization, laser, or by heating
a loop of thin wire with electricity, called loop electrosurgical excision procedure or
large loop excision of the transformation zone.
Treatment of early cervical cancer is to surgically remove either just the tumor, or also the
uterus and associated lymph nodes.
If the cancer is more advanced, radiation and chemotherapy may be done.
All right, as a quick recap…
Cervical cancer is a cancer of the female reproductive system affecting the cervix.
It’s most often a squamous cell carcinoma caused by a human papillomavirus infection.
It starts as cervical intraepithelial neoplasia and develops very slowly.
Many cases of cervical cancer can now be prevented thanks to the HPV vaccine, or caught very
early on by screening for precancerous lesions with a Pap test.
Precancerous lesions can be managed with cryosurgery or conization, whereas treatment for cervical
cancer is surgical.