In engineering, the power rating of a device is a guideline set by the manufacturer as
a maximum power to be used with that device. This limit is usually set somewhat lower than
the level where the device will be damaged, to allow a margin of safety.
In devices which primarily dissipate electric power or convert it into mechanical power,
such as resistors, electric motors, and speakers, the power rating given is usually the maximum
power that can be safely dissipated by the device. The usual reason for this limit is
heat, although in certain electromechanical devices, particularly speakers, it is to prevent
mechanical damage. When heat is the limiting factor, the power rating is easily calculated.
First, the amount of heat that can be safely dissipated by the device, , must be calculated.
This is related to the maximum safe operating temperature, the ambient temperature or temperature
range in which the device will be operated, and the method of cooling. If is the maximum
safe operating temperature of the device, is the ambient temperature, and is the total
thermal resistance between the device and ambient, then the maximum heat dissipation
is given by
If all power in a device is dissipated as heat, then this is also the power rating.
On the other hand, if most of the power is converted into mechanical power, then we need
to know the efficiency, . Then, the power rating is given by
Note that this is the real or effective power dissipated in the device.
For motors, their power rating is conventionally defined as their output power, not their input
power consumed. In devices that primarily convert between
different forms of electric power, such as transformers, or transport it from one location
to another, such as transmission lines, the power rating almost always refers to the maximum
power flow through the device, not dissipation within it. The usual reason for the limit
is heat, and the maximum heat dissipation is calculated as above.
Power ratings are usually given in watts for real power and volt-amperes for apparent power,
although for devices intended for use in large power systems, both may be given in a per-unit
system. Cables are usually rated by giving their maximum voltage and their ampacity.
As the power rating depends on the method of cooling, different ratings may be specified
for air cooling, water cooling, etc. For AC-operated devices, there may be even
be two power ratings, a maximum power ratting and an average power rating. For such devices,
the peak power rating usually specifies the low frequency or pulse energy, while the average
power rating limits high-frequency operation. Average power calculation rating depends on
some assumptions how the device is going to be used. For example, the EIA rating method
for loudspeakers uses a shaped noise signal that simulates music and allows peak excursion
of 6dB, so an EIA rating of 50 Watts corresponds to 200 Watts peak rating.
In some fields of engineering, even a more complex set of power ratings is used. For
example, helicopter engines are rated for continuous power, takeoff and hover power
rating, maximum contingency power, and emergency power rating.
For electrical motors, a similar kind of information is conveyed by the service factor, which is
a multiplier applied to the rated power that can sustained for shorter periods of time.
The service factor is typically in the 1.15-1.4 range, with the figure being lower for higher-power
motors. For every hour of operation at the service-factor-adjusted power rating, a motor
loses two to three hours of life at nominal power, i.e. its service life is reduced to
less than half for continued operation at this level. The service factor is defined
in the ANSI/NEMA MG 1 standard, and is generally used in the United States. There is no IEC
standard for the service factor. Exceeding the power rating of a device by
more than the margin of safety set by the manufacturer usually does damage to the device
by causing its operating temperature to exceed safe levels. In semiconductors, irreparable
damage can occur very quickly. Exceeding the power rating of most devices for a very short
period of time is not harmful, although doing so regularly can sometimes cause cumulative
damage. Power ratings for electrical apparatus and
transmission lines are a function of the duration of the proposed load and the ambient temperature;
a transmission line or transformer, for example, can carry significantly more load in cold
weather than in hot weather. Momentary overloads, causing high temperatures and deterioration
of insulation, may be considered an acceptable trade-off in emergency situations. The power
rating of switching devices varies depending on the circuit voltage as well as the current.
In certain aerospace or military applications, a device may carry a much higher rating than
would be accepted in devices intended to operate for long service life.
Audio amplifiers Audio amplifier power ratings are typically
established by driving the device under test to the onset of clipping, to a predetermined
distortion level, variable per manufacturer or per product line. Driving an amplifier
to 1% distortion levels will yield a higher rating than driving it to 0.01% distortion
levels. Similarly, testing an amplifier at a single mid-range frequency, or testing just
one channel of a two-channel amplifier, will yield a higher rating than if it is tested
throughout its intended frequency range with both channels working. Manufacturers can use
these methods to market amplifiers whose published maximum power output includes some amount
of clipping in order to show higher numbers. For instance, the Federal Trade Commission
established an amplifier rating system in which the device is tested with both channels
driven throughout its advertised frequency range, at no more than its published distortion
level. The Electronic Industries Association rating system, however, determines amplifier
power by measuring a single channel at 1,000 Hz, with a 1% distortion level—1% clipping.
Using the EIA method rates an amplifier 10 to 20% higher than the FTC method.
Maximum continuous rating Maximum continuous rating is defined as the
maximum output that an electric power generating station is capable of producing continuously
under normal conditions over a year. Under ideal conditions, the actual output could
be higher than the MCR. Within shipping, ships usually operates at
the nominal continuous rating which is 85% of the 90% of MCR. The 90% MCR is usually
the contractual output for which the propeller is designed. Thus, the usual output at which
ships are operated is around 75% to 77% of MCR.
Measurement of nominal power and efficiency of photovoltaic modules
The nominal power of a photovoltaic module is determined by measuring current and voltage
while varying resistance under defined illumination. The conditions are specified in standards
such as IEC 61215, IEC 61646 and UL 1703; specifically the light intensity is 1000 W/m2,
with a spectrum similar to sunlight hitting the earth's surface at latitude 35° N in
the summer and temperature of the cells at 25 °C. The power is measured while varying
the resistive load on the module between open and closed circuit.
The maximum power measured is the nominal power of the module in Watts. Colloquially,
this is also written as "Wp"; this format is colloquial as it is outside the standard
by adding suffixes to standardized units. The nominal power divided by the light power
that falls on the module is the efficiency. See also
Effective radiated power, the regulatory analogue for VHF and UHF broadcasting.
References