“The main principal point in war is to secure plenty of provisions and to
destroy the enemy by famine” - Vegetius This quote from Vegetius refers to the
importance that the Romans placed on military logistics, in that it was literally the driving
force of victory. For it is the best possible outcome if a hostile enemy can be neutralised
simply by disrupting their supplies without losing man power in a full-on engagement.
The term logistics is defined as the strategy of transport, delivery, storage and the overall
organisation of the military supply system. And the Romans perfected it so well,
that it became one of the key reasons they were able to secure one of the greatest
Empires the world has ever known. By the end of this video, you will know exactly how…
This video’s sponsor is MyHeritage, the #1 family history service in Europe. You can click the
link in the description to sign up for a 14-day free trial and get a 50% discount on your first
subscription. Once you sign up, you will be asked to enter your name, country and year of birth.
From there, you can add your parents and grandparents, and let MyHeritage do the rest. They
will allow you to discover possible relatives from their 18 billion accessible historical records.
You can then check the information on these matches to see if they’re correct, and if they
are, you could start unlocking a very large family tree and find out who your distant ancestors
really were. If you don’t know your parents or grandparents, you can take their DNA test at an
affordable price, which will allow you to discover some relatives, so you could work up from there.
After you make a family tree, MyHeritage lets you conveniently save it in the form of a chart, and
even order it as a poster. MyHeritage also has a useful feature to enhance and colourize any black
and white photos you might have. More than that, you can animate portraits to make them come alive.
So click the link in the description to get their free 14-day trial and try it for yourself...
All military campaigns start as an order from above; that is - from the senate or the emperor of
Rome. As the highest ruling authority, they first carefully consider and debate all motives and
available resources before launching a campaign. Whatever the reason for war, several preparations
are made months before the armies are even mobilised. This involves careful calculations of
the supplies needed for an army throughout a full campaign and how they would reach them... Let’s
assume that a moderate army of 4 legions has to travel from the lower danube to the upper rhine.
Marching at an impressive 150km (93 miles) a week, it would still take 2.5 months to cover
the 1600 km (1000 mile) distance. Throughout this period, the army would need all sorts of supplies,
which we will go over in a bit. Each legion consisted of about 5000 legionaries,
and would require a total of 600 draft animals to carry its 65 artillery pieces,
together with all their food, supplies, and tools. So, an army of 4 legions would have about 20,000
legionaries, and be accompanied by about the same amount in auxiliaries and mercenaries,
and about double that amount of non-combatants. This would amount to 80,000 people, 10,000 draft
animals and 260 artillery pieces; quite literally the population of an entire ancient city. Keep in
mind, this is nowhere near the size of Trajan’s 12 legion army that he assembled for the Dacian wars…
Our estimate of camp followers is fairly accurate for the time, because many seeked to make a profit
from war through looting and trading. Their numbers would vary depending on how rich the
enemies of Rome were thought to be, and Livy describes an interesting campaign of Liguria,
where there were almost no camp followers because the region was poor and offered little plunder…
As you can tell, even a moderate 4 legion army would heavily diminish the supplies
of any province it crossed. So the senate, after carefully considering all the numbers,
would issue edicts to many provinces and nearby allies to acquire the supplies,
so as to distribute the heavy load among everyone, and to make sure they had plenty of time to do it.
To ensure that each was up for the task, these edicts would take into account the specific
demography and tax revenues of each province, as well as their natural productions. For example,
Provinces like Hispania, Sicily, and Sardinia were known to supply Republican armies with
woollen tunics and togas, which was vital for the army to stay warm. While the Anatolian plains were
known for their excessive grain production, and were likely ordered to produce it for campaigns.
Depending on the season, different supplies were ordered to the provinces, but the most
essential ones were wheat, vinegar, wine and salt. These were the goods the armies would always try
to carry in large amounts. Wheat was used to make bread, which would make up ⅔ of a soldier's diet,
and account for 60-90% of their energy requirement, as each soldier needed at least 3000
calories a day. Wine was the staple drink of every soldier, but not in the form we take it today.
It was largely mixed with water, and even seawater for flavour, and also had the effect
of disinfecting the drinking water. Lastly, salt and vinegar were used as preservatives for food,
ensuring that it doesn't go bad too quickly… For a more interesting diet, individual soldiers would
purchase various food from either camp followers or local merchants… An army would also need
fodder for its horses and pack animals. This was available in 3 forms: Hard fodder, like barley or
oats (2.5 kg a day for ancient horses, supported by egyptian papyrus), dry fodder, being hay or
straw (7 kg a day, could be replaced by pasture), and pasture - grass and crops growing in fields.
The latter was often provided by the land, but the other 2 had to be collected just in case.
If any provinces did not comply with the edicts, proper officers were appointed to compel them to
do it, sometimes by force… If a province is unable to produce the supplies, they must either trade or
buy them in full quantity and quality. Independent contractors and corporations were also included
in the logistics. These middlemen would bid to supply the armies of Rome with clothing,
weapons and transportation… all for a profit. During the early campaigns into Germania,
Augustus met with the council of chieftains from Gaul several times to discuss the logistics
and make proper arrangements for the incoming campaigns. Such arrangements were very welcomed,
as they allowed the state to share the burden of a campaign with local authorities.
These were in turn spared from forceful requisitions and harsh policies…
In no case should a campaign be delayed by a single province,
and the punishments for such delays in the logistical network were severe. But it also
presented a good opportunity for Provinces and allies to prove their worth to the ruling party,
which would often see them rewarded for their enthusiastic loyalty and support.
We have an account of 2 allies even competing in acquiring the needed supplies before a campaign,
all to be in a good standing with the ruling authority: In the 2nd century BC, both Carthage
and Numidia constantly competed by sending large shipments of grain, elephants and troops to the
distant wars of the Republic. In this case, both Numidians and Carthaginians hoped to win
over Rome to rule in their favour, as they were both embroiled in several territorial disputes
in which Rome had to act as an arbitrator... Once the supplies were collected and ready,
it was essential for them to be stored within the walls of large cities within
each province, especially if they were border provinces. This was done for 3 reasons:
Firstly, it was for provincial administrators to more easily present the supplies to passing
legions in whole. Secondly, if the enemy were to launch preemptive raids on border provinces,
they would find that all the cattle, grain, and other provisions of the countryside were gone,
and both their damage dealt and loot collected would not be as significant. The 3rd reason is
if the enemy decides to siege any cities, they would find them very well provisioned,
and will not be able to capture them before the main Roman army arrives…
If any province needed transportation for their supplies, the proper means were considered.
In the ancient world, ships were the fastest and cheapest form of transportation,
with each Mediterranean ship having the capacity of transporting 150 tons at a speed of 2-5 knots,
depending on the wind. So considering a single legion and its servants needed 5600
kg of grain per day, a single cargo could have provided for several weeks. It is unknown how
such shipments were organised, but it was likely done through private ship owners and merchants,
who were contracted by the Roman state to deliver supplies to certain garrisons and depots.
Payments and tax breaks were probable rewards for such journeys. The state also made sure to keep a
careful inventory of the ships at hand, and even recorded the exact state of each ship they had and
if any were in need of repairs... Ships however, were limited by the season. So
it was common to campaign during favourable winds and have the army follow a main river. This way,
supplies could easily catch up to the fast moving army and resupply them. Trajan’s column shows such
a strategy being used, with depictions of ships carrying barrels, tents, troops and even horses…
But armies on march would usually be separated for strategic advantages,
so land supply also had to be maintained as an alternative. This is where the Roman road
network came in, which was specifically created for the purpose of moving troops and supplies as
quickly as possible. If not for proper roads, a marching army would only leave behind an uneven
trail of mud and rocks that would slow down the movement of carts and baggage.
So the roads provided the Romans with speed; Supplies were collected faster,
distributed faster, and the army arrived faster, which was an advantage over many of its enemies…
But no supply line can work efficiently without proper communication channels.
For this, the Romans had the "cursus publicus", a state mandated courier and transportation network
made up of stopping stations. These would provide official messengers and contractors
with fresh equipment and horses to ensure they can carry on without having to stop.
This allowed the constant flow of information between the army,
the rear and the home front by having a reserve of fresh mounts and riders every set distance.
A campaigning army was always in need of supplies and it was the responsibility of the higher
civilian echelons to address the needs of the army as efficiently as possible. This was done
by a constant correspondence between the army general’s staff and the civilian authorities.
Many of these letters contained dispatches about the state of the campaign, the recent activities
of the army, the future plans, the supply needs for short and long term and any further orders.
Now let’s take a look within the army itself. Regardless of the stage of the campaign, the Roman
armies always had to be either on the move, or very soon to be on the move and there were several
good reasons for this. The simplest one was that it always kept the men busy with something;
they were always packing, scouting or digging, and it did not give them time to be idle. Because when
an army WAS idle, it was very prone to becoming soft from indiscipline, getting caught off guard
by the enemy, or having growing thoughts of mutiny and desertion… The second reason to keep an army
on the move is because most locations could not sustain it for long. This brings us to two more
vital supplies for an army: Wood, for keeping warm, cooking, and building forts, and water,
for drinking and washing. These were daily needs of such magnitude that it was rarely even possible
to move them to an army. So all marching camps had to be made in close proximity to water and
forests… But the sheer amount of people and animals in 1 place will quickly reduce an
area of these resources. Josephus gives us a good idea of what a Roman army was capable of,
and writes that during the siege of Jerusalem, trees within an 18 km radius were cut down by
the legions to build platforms, towers, and siege engines... The Romans would then feed their pack
animals with the natural pasture around them, and would try to reserve their supplies of dry fodder
for emergencies. It wouldn’t take long for the army's animals to strip the land of any grass,
and thus further necessitate the constant movement of the army. As for the water source, our 80,000
people and 10,000 pack animals would need to drink about 320,000 (85,000gallons) litres a day,
and that's not even considering their need for cooking and washing.
Most water sources would not last near a Roman army for a couple of days.
Vegetius mentions that even the air around an army would become noticeably contaminated..
Now that we established that armies always liked to be in motion,
we could guess that the next immediate step would be to strengthen the supply lines from
the source to the constantly moving army. These would have to be guarded by cities and forts,
which always needed to be further strengthened with strong garrisons to hold these key positions,
because if they were to fall, so would the line of supplies, and then the whole army. For this role,
a good general of a Roman army would leave soldiers who are least fit for service to
garrison them, and would provide them with all needed equipment and artillery for their defence.
This could include soldiers who are either wounded, less experienced, or most rebellious
and troublesome. This last class of soldiers is particularly important to leave behind on watch
duty, so that they can’t corrupt the minds of the army with thoughts of mutiny or insubordination.
A smart general would even make their new position of watch duty sound like a promotion,
which would make them feel more valued and important. No matter how frustrated a soldier is,
it is hard to stay that way when his superior officers tell him that they would trust no one
more with the highly important task of guarding the rear and managing the flow of supplies to
the army. This new feeling of purpose tends to neutralise them as a threat of mutiny…
Once an army was within enemy territory, it could, to a degree, defer the problem of sourcing
supplies onto the enemy. But unlike for fodder, water, and firewood, foraging for food was not
done as often in large campaigns. On Trajan’s column, legionaries are shown collecting grain
in open fields, but it was likely the exception rather than the norm. Grain that was supplied
was already harvested and processed, and saved a lot of time to prepare. Also, if the point
of the campaign was to acquire more territory after punishing the enemy, then preserving their
agriculture would create a smoother transition under Roman rule. Most importantly, Rome wouldn’t
need to supply them with money and food to prevent starvation or revolts until their next harvest…
To do this, the Romans instilled heavy discipline and organisation to make sure everyone acted to
the state’s benefit. Roman armies also tried to be as self-reliant as possible to account for
logistical disruptions or unexpected campaigns. Archaeology has reported dozens of clerical and
specialised positions in the legions. They had doctors, vets, hunters, shepherds, boatmen,
mule drivers and many more… Every legionary was a small cog in the grand logistical machine of
the Roman army, and they made sure to provide the most for the army's needs. As such, a Roman army
could service and take care of their own clothes, armour, animals, equipment, weapons, and artillery
pieces. A Roman helmet found in Valkenburg, was passed down to five different soldiers through
the years. The same was true with armour and other equipment, which were often recycled or repaired
to be issued by new recruits. A Roman army could also create its own projectiles, siege engines,
and pretty much any form of construction… Even the army’s non-combatants and animals were broken down
into many subunits, each given their own standard to stay close to, so they don't get disordered or
scare the soldiers with their panic during a sudden engagement. They would march with the
main baggage between the best infantry behind them and the cavalry in front. This would not be the
case for the camp followers and sutlers following the legions, as it would have been near impossible
to coordinate such an overwhelming number of civilians during march.
Within the army, even the distribution of food had a system of its own.
Some positions and ranks in the legion received different proportions and quality of rations,
depending on their level of prestige or punishment. For example, Roman citizen legionaries
were known to receive more rations than the non-citizen auxiliaries, while legionaries
who were punished were known to have received not only less rations, but also cheaper food,
like barley instead of wheat. However, such food distributions had to be done very carefully to not
raise tension between the men, and in difficult times, like during sieges or dwindling supplies,
this system was abandoned, and every man received the same rations regardless of rank or punishment.
This whole system, starting from the provincial edicts all
the way to the distribution of food among soldiers, was very advanced for its time
and was a big reason why Roman armies rarely lost external battles
and if they did, they were quickly able to raise new armies and strike back...
That's all for this breakdown of Roman logistics. Feel free to watch other related videos we made! I
would like to give a shout out to our Patreon supporters who helped us make this video.
Consider joining them if you wish to forever engrave your name in our future videos!