China’s intervention into the Korean War completely changed the strategic situation.
Prior to China’s involvement, the UN coalition had all the momentum, and it seemed that they
would be able to assert control over the whole territory of Korea. The final stage of the
Korean war was about to begin. If you are interested in the history of this era, don’t
forget to check out our second channel – The Cold War – the link is in the top right
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Chinese success prompted its leadership to continue its advance. Mao Zedong was warned
about the difficulties in this, especially regarding logistics and the overstretching
of their supply line. Still, Mao ordered to continue the advance of the army, with an
aim to destroy the ROK forces along the 38th parallel, given that the US units were not
interspersed between the ROK formations, and therefore were unable to support them.
The Third Phase Offensive of the Chinese Army was scheduled to be launched on the 31st of
December 1950, in the hopes that the Americans would be caught off guard due to the holiday.
The UN Forces had their own troubles; the ROK forces now mainly consisted of new recruits
due to previous casualties, while the US 8th Army was suffering from low morale following
the losses in the Second Phase Offensive, and were expecting to be evacuated from Korea.
General Ridgway was appointed as the new commander of the 8th Army.
On the evening of December 31st, 1950, the PVA 13th Army launched a massive attack against
the ROK forces along the 38th Parallel. Simultaneously, the ROK’s 1st infantry division, which was
defending on the southern bank of the Imjin River, was defeated by elements of the PVA
38th and 39th Corps. With the ROK 6th infantry division also retreating, the UN defenses
at the Imjin River and the Hantan River had completely collapsed, with the PVA advancing
14 km into UN-controlled territory. Actions at Kapyong and Chuncheon also resulted in
a serious defeat for UN forces, and inflicted severe casualties on ROK infantry divisions
2 and 5. With the UN defense line collapsing, General
Ridgway ordered the evacuation of Seoul on January 3rd 1951, due to the of the US 8th
Army being encircled. Chinese commander Peng ordered the PVA 13th Army to pursue the retreating
UN forces by attacking towards Seoul. Following the fighting around Seoul on January 4th,
the KPA I Corps, the PVA 38th Corps, and the PVA 50th Corps entered the city. On January
5th, Gimpo and Incheon were also captured. By January 7th Peng had halted the Third Offensive
phase due to overstretching of supply lines and the exhaustion of the Chinese and North
Korean troops. Another successful Chinese offensive had sunk the morale of the UN troops
even further. The leadership was even contemplating withdrawing from Korea due to the dire situation.
But the work of General Ridgway to restore morale, and the Chinese rejection of a ceasefire
proposed by the US, kept such intentions at bay.
Mao instructed Peng to conduct a “last battle” to decide the fate of Korea, while the UN
Commander, General Macarthur, went as far as to call for a nuclear strike on Chinese
forces. But General Ridgway was able to stabilise the UN forces without such drastic measures
along a line with Suwon in the west, Wonju in the center, and the territory north of
Samcheok in the east. General Ridgway was aware of the logistical difficulties hampering
the Chinese, and launched Operation Thunderbolt in late January 1951.
Previous air and ground reconnaissance did not present conclusive information on the
enemy forces and their movement, therefore on the 25th of January Ridgway ordered a reconnaissance-in-force.
Elements of the I and IX Corps started an advance towards the Han River. Since the advance
was supposed to be coordinated in the initial phase of the operation, the gains were small,
and met a background of light resistance by the Chinese and KPA. On the 30th of January
this operation turned into a full-fledged offensive. Aided by their air superiority,
the UN Forces were able to complete their objective of reaching the Han River and taking
back Wonju. With momentum back on the side of the UN forces,
the ROK 11th division engaged in the killing of communist sympathizers and guerillas, with
up to 1500 casualties registered in Geochang, Sancheong, and Hamyang. In order to regain
lost territories and momentum, the Chinese military leadership ordered the Fourth Phase
Offensive with an attack on Hoengsong. The offensive started with the Chinese 66th Army
moving against the ROK 8th infantry division on February 11th. The ROK were defeated, and
then the 66th army’s 197th division marched south to engage the ROK 3rd division, where
they were able to push it Northeast of Hoengsong. Despite the support of American and Dutch
units, the PVA and KPA were able to defeat the UN Forces in the battle of Hoengsong,
while inflicting 12k casualties and numerous equipment and vehicle losses.
The next target of the Chinese forces was Chipyong-ni, where the Chinese sent the entirety
of the 39th Army, and divisions of the 40th and 42nd armies, totaling 20-25 thousand men.
They aimed to encircle and destroy Chipyong-ni, fighting against 3 infantry divisions of Americans
and French, along with other smaller units totaling 4500 men. After a fierce battle that
went on for almost two days, the Americans and French were able to withstand fierce Chinese
attacks from a number of directions with the aid of the air superiority the UN forces enjoyed.
The Chinese withdrew after losing almost 1000 men. This was a huge morale boost to the UN
forces, as despite their numerical disadvantage they were able to halt Chinese progress and
put an end to the Fourth Offensive Phase. Unlike the previous offensives, the Fourth
did not succeed. This UN victory was followed by Operation
Killer. This was a full-frontal attack by the US 8th Army, which led to the occupation
of the south side of the Han River and Hoengsong. On the 14th of March 1951, the 8th army retook
Seoul, which was the 4th and final change of the hands for Seoul during the war. All
in all, the UN forces were able to advance North of the 38th parallel, and stood on the
so-called Kansas line. Aware of the Chinese army’s difficulties,
Mao appealed to Stalin for help to address the air superiority of the UN. Stalin was
impressed with the Chinese effort in the war and decided to help with two air force divisions,
three anti-aircraft divisions, and six thousand trucks. The Chinese were suffering from a
shortage of ammunition and supplies, along with losing 53k men between January and April
of 1951. In April President Truman dismissed General
Macarthur as Supreme Commander. There was a disagreement between the two, since Truman
believed that the US forces should not intend to occupy North Korea given the circumstances
and balance of powers, whereas Macarthur aimed for total victory, for which moving the war
into China was the only possible outcome. This could have led to a direct conflict with
the Soviet Union, which the Americans wanted to avoid. Moreover, Macarthur believed that
the US should use a nuclear bomb against the Chinese, and thought that it was up to him
to make this decision, while for obvious reasons Truman vehemently disagreed. General Ridgway,
whose appointment as the 8th Army commander had brought success, was promoted to supreme
commander to replace Macarthur. With an aim to drive the UN forces out of
Korea once and for all, the Chinese launched the Fifth Phase Offensive with 700k men on
April 22nd. Despite the fact that the Chinese and KPA forced the UN army to fall back following
the fierce battles of the Imjin River and Kapyong, the UN withdrawal to the defensive
line North of Seoul was orderly. In the Battle of Soyang River, again after initial success,
the Chinese advance was halted on May 20th. Chinese casualties were between 102k and 160k
men, against up to 16k losses for the UN. The Fifth offensive was far from reaching
its aim - that being the final defeat of the UN Forces - and instead put them in a vulnerable
and weakened position. The UN used this chance to attack, push the Chinese back beyond the
38th parallel, and solidify their defensive positions.
It was becoming increasingly clear for both sides that it would be very difficult, if
not impossible, to gain an all-out victory in this conflict. From July 1951 to July 1953
there was a stalemate along the 38th parallel. Both sides were fighting and exchanging artillery
fire with each other, but there was no significant exchange of territories. The armistice talks
began in July 1951, but it did not prevent major battles happening until the signing
of the ceasefire. Finally, on the 27th of July 1953 a ceasefire
agreement was signed in Panmunjom between the United Nations Command on one side, and
North Korea and China on the other side, which decided on cessation of all hostilities, establishment
of the 38th parallel as the de facto border between the two Koreas, and the establishment
of the demilitarized zone, usually referred to as ‘the DMZ’, along the 38th parallel.
The South Korean leaders refused to sign the agreement.
Overall the UN forces had suffered up to 200k losses, against 550k-750k losses suffered
by the North Koreans and the Chinese. The Korean Civil War was the first major conflict
after the Second World War which directly involved Great Powers, but it would not be
the last...
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