When immersing oneself in the terminology associated with the underpinnings of research
there are a number of complex philosophical terms that need to be understood.
Please keep in mind that terms covered in this video are often debated, understood and
communicated in multiple "correct" ways.
To fully understand them you need to further explore them using the literature.
A good starting point is the e-book on the website below this video.
Research or inquiry is guided by a set of beliefs.
This set of beliefs or worldview is known as a paradigm.
A paradigm is essentially a way of thinking about the world.
Guba and Lincoln (1994) define paradigms as "basic belief systems based on ontological,
epistemological and methodological assumptions" (p. 107).
They assert that there is no way to prove that one paradigm is superior to the others,
which is why they are debated.
According to Guba and Lincoln (1994) these ontological, epistemological and methodological
assumptions are so interrelated within inquiry paradigms that answering one question limits
how the others can be answered.
Beliefs or views of the world around us have been debated throughout history in the field
of philosophy dating back at least as far as early Greece.
The term ontology actually originates from the Greek word for "to be."
Ontology refers to beliefs about the nature of reality (Guba & Lincoln, 1994).
In philosophical terms it refers to the study of our existence and the fundamental nature
of reality or being.
Beliefs about the nature of reality therefore determine what can be known about it.
Questions related to ontology include: What exists?
What is true?
And how can we sort existing things?
Epistemology and methodology are driven by ontological beliefs.
Epistemology is more philosophical in nature than methodology.
It examines the relationship between knowledge and the researcher during discovery.
It therefore refers to how we come to know what we know.
One's ontological beliefs will dictate how objective the relationship between the researcher
and what can be known should be.
Methodology is the way we go about discovering knowledge in a systematic way.
It is more specific and practice based than epistemology.
The appropriate methodology is driven by one's ontological and epistemological beliefs since
methods like experiments or interviews have varying degrees of objectivity.
Bailey (1997) examines the philosophical differences between the two dominant paradigms in nursing
research, which she labels a quantitative and qualitative.
Guba and Lincoln (2005) on the other hand identify positivism, postpositivism, critical
theory and constructivism as the major inquiry paradigms.
Upon examination of these terms one can see that these authors are talking about the same
things in different ways.
To begin it is logical to discuss the ontology within each of these paradigms.
From an ontological perspective, Bailey (1997) discusses two dominant perceptions of reality:
Realism and Relativism.
It is important to note that there are also perceptions of reality that fall in-between
these two strongly contrasting views of reality.
Some terms used in the debate about reality have mild to strong ontological similarity.
There are also terms that have both ontological similarities and differences when compared.
Traditional science, founded on a realist ontology, uses experiments to find "the truth"
or facts about reality.
Realism is a belief that reality exists.
It is driven by natural laws.
This reality is objective, independent of any theories or human beliefs or human behavior
and exists even if it is not yet known.
It is context-free.
Realism is the ontological perspective within the quantitative or positivist paradigm of
research.
Positivism is a paradigm of inquiry that searches for "the truth" or facts about reality.
Within positivism there is a belief that there is an objective, constant reality that exists
and can be measured objectively.
Since a reality exists that can be discovered the epistemology within positivism is objective
in nature.
This objectivity means that the researcher maintains distance from the researched in
order to prevent any influence on the results.
The methodology in this paradigm is therefore experimental or manipulative in nature where
hypotheses are tested and quantitative methods are viewed as superior.
Measures are taken to control anything that may influence the research.
Another term that is essentially the same as positivism is modernism.
Modernism is based on generalized truths about reality.
It emerged during the modern period in history where it was believed that reasoning, science
and technology would improve our body of knowledge and well-being due to rational control of
nature and society.
Modernists search for certainty and permanent universal laws.
Alternate ontologies have emerged that underpin newer paradigms of research.
The strongest contrasting ontological perspective to realism is relativism.
Research founded on relativism searches for meaning in the experiences of individuals.
Relativism is the belief that reality cannot exist without context.
Relativists believe that there are multiple mental constructions of reality.
These realities are influenced by experiences and social interactions.
Each person therefore has their own reality that is considered "correct."
Relativism is the ontological perspective within the qualitative or constructivist paradigm
of research.
Constructivists believe that individuals or groups construct meaning or reality based
on interactions with the social environment.
We do not find knowledge, we construct it.
It is therefore possible to have multiple, socially constructed realities that are all
considered correct.
Constructivists reject the notion that an objective reality exists.
The epistemology considers the researcher and participant as co-creators of the findings.
It involves interaction between the researcher and participants.
The methodologies used in constructivist research are therefore based on interactions between
and among the researcher and participant.
A consensus is sought within the findings.
Qualitative methods like in-depth interviews are used and context is well described.
Between positivism and constructivism there are paradigms that combine varying degrees
of both of these opposing perspectives.
Post-modernism represents a range of viewpoints and is therefore impossible to define.
Post-modernists believe that it is not possible to define social phenomenon, meaning that
attempting to define it would be contrary to postmodernism itself.
Instead, it is a term that refers to a movement away from traditional schools of thought that
is founded on a distrust of large or abstract theories that explain reality.
Essentially, postmodernists do not believe in a truth that can be defined.
Post-positivism is a paradigm that represents one of the earliest shifts away from positivism
and shares a number of similarities with it.
Post positivism is founded on a critical realist ontology.
Like realists, critical realists believe that a reality exists.
However, they do not think that it can be perfectly detected due to our flawed ways
of finding it as well as the nature of phenomena.
Critical realists believe that that claims of reality need to be critically examined
in a variety of ways in order to get the closest possible estimation of reality, but it will
never be perfect.
In post-positivism a theory cannot be proven but a strong case can be made for it by disproving
alternative explanations.
The epistemology within post-positivism, like positivism, values objectivity.
However, unlike positivism, post-positivists do not believe it is possible to maintain
absolute distance from the researched.
They recognize and attempt to control the potential influences that the researcher's
background knowledge could have on observations.
Findings are evaluated based on preexisting knowledge and critique.
If they are replicated they are likely true, but are always open to being proven wrong.
The methodology in this post-positivistic paradigm incorporates a combination of quantitative
and qualitative methods.
They believe that knowledge exists in a social context that can be understood best using
both quasi-experiments and interpretive research methods.
However, quantitative methods are often favored in post-positivism.
Instead of proving hypotheses they are falsified.
Experimental methods are modified to include quasi-experimental methods.
More contextual information is collected and the emic view of participants is sought to
determine meaning and contribute to grounded theory.
This goal is accomplished through the use of more qualitative methods.
Please note that while critical realism has been described as the ontology underpinning
the post-positivist paradigm, some philosophies of critical realism can be said to be more
distinct.
One way of looking at critical realism is the combination of a realist ontology and
a relativist epistemology.
Critical realists believe that a reality exists, which does not depend on our perception of
it.
Critical Theory on the other hand is a paradigm that represents a further shift from positivism
than post-positivism.
It is founded on historical realism, which essentially proposes that what is seen as
real has been shaped by social, political, cultural, economic, ethnic and gender values.
While these "realities" are inaccurately considered truth they are essentially real now.
The epistemology in this paradigm is based on interactions of the researcher and the
researched and subjectivity.
The values of the researcher are considered an influence on the findings.
The methodology is therefore based on dialogue that discovers findings through exchanging
logical arguments.
I hope you found this video useful.
For a more in-depth review of these terms please visit the link below and get the e-book.
You may also find the links to other videos on the screen helpful.
Thank you!