While the United States did not want to open another front in Italy, the British hoped for a
rapid advance, and the Allies then agreed to fight in the country. However, they were unexpectedly
met by fierce German opposition, leading to some of the most bitter fighting of World War 2.
The strategy was necessary to dilute the German forces in Normandy and pave the way for Operation
Overlord. But as winter came on the steep mountain slopes of Italy in January of 1944,
the Allied troops were overwhelmed while struggling to gain an inch of ground.
Not only did the Americans, British, and French had to join forces to push the enemy back,
but they also needed the help of the forces from India, New Zealand, and Poland.
Only together would they be able to breach the German Gustav Line,
but it came with a costly price…
Unfavorable Odds
The fighting in Italy resembled the most intense scenes from the Western Front in World War 1.
The Allies had landed in Southern Italy in September of 1943,
but their advance came to a halt in January.
Determined to contest every inch of soil, Adolf Hitler ordered Field Marshal Albert Kesselring
to erect an impenetrable line of defense across the mountainous chain of the Apennines.
The high-ground area was ideal for this purpose and, in essence, a bottleneck.
The so-called Gustav Line ran 100 miles south of Rome through the Liri Valley and Route 6,
a crucial road connecting Naples to the capital.
In addition, the 30-foot-wide Rapido River further complicated the invaders’ campaign,
as the powerful watercourse tended to flood during the winter.
Faced with a failed amphibious landing at Anzio, the brutal encounter at the Battle of the Rapido
River, and a relentless German force, the Allied troops were suffering tremendously,
and difficult decisions had to be made to help the men on the battlefield.
Crowning the highlands was a site close to the heart of many Italians,
a Catholic sacred venue situated high on a rocky hill overseeing the town of Cassino,
in what was dubbed Monastery Hill. Nestled at the hill’s foot,
the town was linked to the monastery by a narrow zigzag road up the precarious slopes.
As the other routes seemed impassable due to the harsh season,
the Monte Cassino path looked like the only way.
However, crossing it would be unthinkable without defeating the enemy up in the mountain.
For hundreds of years, the 6th-century Benedictine Monastery of Monte Cassino stood as a symbol of
peace and magnificence. But as the National World War 2 Museum in New Orleans described: (QUOTE)
“[The] religious beacon transformed into a looming reminder of Allied attrition,
stagnancy, and the costliness of war.”
Attrition
The Allied armies in Italy were led by General Sir Harold Alexander.
The forces mainly consisted of the American 5th Army under Lieutenant-General Mark W.
Clark and the British 8th Army, commanded by Lieutenant-General Sir Oliver Leese.
They had all hoped that a coordinated attack by the US 5th Army and the VI US Corps at Anzio,
on the coast south of Rome, might rush the German defenses. But not only did
the effort backfire, but the failure also added pressure on the troops south of the
Gustav Line to relieve their isolated and vulnerable compatriots at the beachhead.
It had not been the quick breakthrough the Allies had
expected, and the effort developed into a gruesome war of attrition.
On January 17, the II US Corps, X British Corps,
and the French Expeditionary Force attacked the Gustav Line in an attempt to bypass Monte Cassino.
Composed of Moroccan and Algerian units, the French Force confronted
the German 5th Mountain Division. They were close to breaking the enemy line,
but the costly effort had decimated their numbers to the point where they
had no available reserves, not to mention the significant losses due to frostbite.
Meanwhile, the British successfully crossed the river but were met by dug-in machine-gun nests
guarded by minefield and concrete bunkers, bringing their advance to a full stop.
As for the Americans, they were trapped by enemy barbed wire and minefields while attempting to
force their way up the Valley, then raked with machine-gun fire from concealed pillboxes.
After a failed attack with his rifle company, an infantry officer reported: (QUOTE)
“I had 184 men… 48 hours later I had 17. If that’s not mass murder, I don’t know what is.”
As the battle continued, the 34th came within a thousand yards of the monastery from the north,
but the enemy blocked their way once again. And the fighting was no better in the town,
with every building turned into a strongpoint.
Exhausted, the Americans finally reached a standstill.
Tough Choice
With the main American, British, and French forces depleted,
the New Zealand Corps relieved their first wave of attackers.
Led by Lieutenant-General Sir Bernard Freyberg, the unit was merged with the 4th Indian Division.
Originally attached to the US 5th Army,
the New Zealand Corps was assigned a breakout role to capitalize on American success.
But in the resulting defeat, with its two infantry and one armored brigades,
the unit would have to take over from the Americans and advance to the high grounds.
The plan was basically the same as the already failed American attack,
calling for the New Zealanders to advance across the plain and capture the town as
the Indians attacked Monastery Hill. Thus, the likelihood of success was pessimistic.
In theory, the Monastery, protected as neutral territory under the Concordat of 1933,
could not be used by the warring parties. But the Allies suspected the Germans had
nonetheless taken the building as a military observation point.
To the men struggling to reach the Abbey, it was inconceivable that it was not defended.
With walls 150 feet tall and 10 feet thick, the Monastery was a considerable obstacle
for the invaders and impossible to breach if it was indeed fortified.
Consequently, Freyberg requested General Alexander to bomb the building before his men advanced to
the hills. Contrary to General Clark’s advice, Alexander agreed with the New Zealander Commander,
and a plan was put into motion to blast entrance holes into
the building's outer walls as the infantry advanced uphill.
A Mistake
The second attack officially commenced on February 15, with B-17, B-25, and B-26 waves
soaring over Monastery Hill and dropping 500 and 1000-pound bombs and incendiaries.
However, the Allies had been wrong. The Germans had respected the pact
and were not using the sacred site. Instead,
the Abbey had sheltered hundreds of civilian refugees and a few monks trapped in the rubble.
To make matters worse, the strategy did not help the attackers, as the uncoordinated
Indian Division did not get in position on time. Thus, the German 1st Parachute
Division was able to occupy the ruins after the attack, strengthening their defensive positions.
The tactical mistake proved costly
for the New Zealand Corps and the Indians. By the morning of the 18th,
they were forced back, losing the little ground they had gained and with significant casualties.
However, unbeknownst to the invaders, the Germans had suffered thousands of
losses that month and were unable to repel another heavy attack.
A Final Approach
A third attack was planned but eventually postponed to March 15 due to poor weather
conditions. Freyberg and his men approached the town from the north while the Indians
assaulted the monastery again. Meanwhile, the New Zealanders advanced into Cassino along Route 6.
This time the monastery was not a target,
but the intensive bombing and artillery bombardments flattened the town.
In fact, the bombing devastated the Axis defenses but created new obstacles for the Allied tanks.
A series of bitter encounters ensued in the ruined town, with both sides often occupying
the same building simultaneously. But the Allies still made no significant progress,
eventually falling back and starting preparations for a fourth and final battle.
Operation Diadem was the codename for the Spring Offensive in Italy in 1944,
which incorporated an unprecedented four-front attack that took two months to implement.
It would no longer be a disjointed and narrow approach.
The bulk of Alexander’s armies would execute a coordinated offensive,
fully exploiting Allied air power and artillery resources.
From the front, the US 5th Army and the British 8th Army would engage the enemy in the main course
of action, while the VI US Corps at the Anzio beachhead would put pressure from the rear.
The entire 20-mile German defensive line was finally threatened.
Furthermore, Field Marshal Kesselring believed that another amphibious operation could take
them by surprise and was therefore forced to overstretch his reserves and dilute his strength.
As US Lieutenant-General Leese’s army provided the main thrust through the
Liri Valley along the route, they planned to create a bridgehead to break through.
At the same time, the Americans and French troops would advance
through the coastal flank as the Anzio forces sabotaged enemy communications.
Soon, additional support arrived from the II Polish Corps,
who would cover the British’ right flank at Monte Cassino.
Breakthrough
After months of planning, the assault was finally launched the night of May 11.
The attack opened with an artillery barrage along the entire front, to which the Germans
immediately retaliated with force. While the British troops engaged the fierce defenders,
their tanks and infantry advanced until they ruptured the previously impenetrable Gustav Line.
At the same time, the Americans and French made their way to the Hitler Line,
located six miles behind the Gustav Line.
During this encounter, the French showcased their ability to fight in mountainous terrains.
To the north, the German Paratroopers were having a hard time containing the wrath of the II Polish
Corps, failing to repel them as they performed an encircling hook. Initially, they were driven back,
but on May 16, the Carpathian and Kresowas Divisions attacked again. The stubborn
defenders held onto their ground, but irremediably slipped away with so many holes along their lines.
A Polish officer later recounted that the following day: (QUOTE) “We hung on
grimly until the exciting news arrived that the monastery was in our hands. I shall never forget
the pure joy of that moment. We could hardly believe that at long last our task was done.”
The Polish had captured the Abbey,
the Battle for Monte Cassino was over, and the Allies had pierced through the Winter Line.
However, the victory had come at a grave cost, with the invaders suffering about 55,000 losses
compared to the 20,000 from the defenders.
Aftermath
The sanctuary’s destruction was among the most debated and controversial decisions in the war,
evoking mixed emotions on both sides.
Dwight D. Eisenhower had recently signed a Protection of Cultural Property Order, arguing:
(QUOTE) “If we have to choose between destroying a famous building and sacrificing our own men,
then our men’s lives count infinitely more and the buildings must go.”
On the one hand, several American newspapers capitalized on the story that the Nazis
had violated the religious site based on the falsehood that they had inhabited the monastery.
And on the other, German propaganda smeared the United States as enemies of religious traditions,
for they had indeed leveled the ancient venue to the ground.
In truth, when the tough choice was made, it proved incredibly detrimental to the Allies.
However, it led to a decisive victory, and, perhaps more importantly,
the Allied forces finally captured Rome and closed another front of the war.
The significant event was eventually overshadowed by the Normandy landings on June 4,
1944, but the brave actions of the Allied troops paved the way for the success of that operation.
After the war ended, the monastery was entirely reconstructed,
even incorporating original pieces into the new construction.
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