The region that constitutes modern day Iran has been a center of civilization for thousands
of years, and played a key role in the development of the modern world. Despite this, their contribution
is relatively unknown, as are the powerful and prosperous empires which sprang up centered
on this area. From the proto-Iranian Elamite civilization in the 3rd millennium BC to the
Shia Safavid Dynasty of the 4000 years later, the administrative structures developed in
this region have remained almost the same for many centuries. In this video, we shall
examine how the Persian reputation for good administration came about and what it consisted
of. Welcome to our video on the Administrative prowess of the Iranian Empires.
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The Ancient city of Susa was first inhabited in the mid fifth millennium BC and became
part of one of the first human civilizations, along with the Sumerians and pre-dynastic
Egyptians. It is likely that the very first traditions of Iranian administrative prowess
were seeded during this era, and were developed in the centuries after.
The subsequent Elamite Civilisation, centered on Susa and Anshan, was also one of the oldest
empires in history, consisting of five sub-kingdoms under the rule of the Elamite high monarch,
and possessing one of the first noted administrative bureaucracies ever known. Their government
consisted of three layers of authority: provinces were ruled over by a governor, known as a
Halmenik, who were in turn overseen by royal viceroy, or Sakanukkun, who was then a subject
to the king of Elam himself. The Elamites also developed a system of underground irrigation
canals, and a language which was so efficient it would be used for thousands of years in
the region. Around 1,000 BC, the Aryan migration into
the Iranian Plateau changed the balance of power in the region. One of these groups,
the Medes, eventually created a formidable empire with its capital at Ecbatana - literally
‘place of assembly’. In 612 BC the Medes, together with the Babylonians, finally crushed
the Neo-Assyrian Empire at their capital Nineveh and became one of the dominant powers.
Administratively, the Medes would leave a rich legacy: they sought to regularise relations
in society and ensure that citizens would be part of a unified State rather than separate
and inconsistent factions. They also employed a federated system of governance, which assisted
with the multiethnic and multicultural nature of their empire, all united under the Median
King. Most importantly, the Medes laid the foundation for a professionalised, adaptable
bureaucracy by employing two main principles; elaborate training and apprenticeships for
candidates, and specialisation - so that administrators could become experts in their specific field.
Whilst nobility and magi were the main source of bureaucrats in the Median Empire, commoners
with exemplary skills were not excluded. In the mid-6th century BC, Cyrus the Great
led the Persians from their homeland in modern Fars, and eventually defeated the Median King
Astyages in 559, beginning the creation of the mightiest empire the world had seen up
to that point. Stretching from Macedonia in the west to the Hindu Kush in the east, it
was clear that a new and reformed administrative bureaucracy was needed to manage this vast
Empire, which Cyrus and Darius [da’rye’us] instituted expertly.
While Cyrus obviously played a central role in creating the first Persian Empire, and
was a military genius, charismatic leader and statesman, his successors also played
a key role in keeping the empire dynamic and ready for any test. His son Cambyses took
the mantle of Great King and pioneered several key aspects of the large state bureaucracy,
such as ambassadors and intelligence ‘agencies’. When preparing to cross the desert into Egypt
in the year 525 BC, Cambyses sent an envoy to the various Arabian Kings asking for safe
passage through the region under their dominion. Thus, Cambyses made a major contribution to
diplomatic relations by establishing the world’s first known ambassadorship - though it is
likely that other less developed emissaries were used before this point.
A few years before this invasion, Cambyses heard tales of the Ethiopians and how their
men were the tallest and most handsome in the world. The Great King was curious, and
so sent a contingency of spies to travel and learn of the country and its culture. Unfortunately,
the Ethiopian king realised they came as spies and expelled them.
In 522, Cambyses perished. His eventual successor, Darius the Great, was a phenomenal administrator
and leader, reforming and tuning the Empire’s bureaucracy to be as efficient as possible.
Darius vastly expanded the system of roads in the Persian Empire, which connected all
Satrapies to the administrative and religious capitals at Susa and Persepolis. The most
well-known of these highways was the famous Royal Road connecting the administrative capital
at Susa to the important western city of Sardis in Anatolia. Herodotus compliments this system
of roads, stating that they were ‘excellently maintained and secured’.
The roads of Persia facilitated another innovation which the Achaemenids pioneered: a postal
service. Using extremely swift horses and travelling day and night through any weather
conditions, highly trained riders delivered messages across the empire very quickly. It
it said that while it took a traveller 90 days to cross from Susa to Sardis, it took
the ‘postmen’ only 5. Darius also reformed Persia’s finances;
for the first time in the ancient world, a fixed taxation was administered. Lands were
also carefully surveyed so that proportional and fair tithes might be collected. In addition
to the taxes, tribute was fixed on conquered peoples, except for the Persians themselves
- they instead provided the empire with elite Immortals, military commanders and administrative
leaders. The monetary reforms included establishing
a universal coinage system, which replaced the barter system empire-wide. Gold and silver
coins were minted for use in military, political and administrative purposes, while copper
and other metals were used for economic and commercial activities.
Finally, Darius reformed local government practices, allowing direct local-to-central
government contacts, which bypassed Satrapal authority, for better coordination between
local and central administrations. Worship of the god Ahura Mazda also gained
prominence. This replaced the idols of the gods of the past and profoundly affected the
administration of the Empire. The four aspects of human adherence to Zoroaster’s teachings
were based on good conduct towards the four pillars; the home (Demana), the clan (Vis),
the district (Shoithra) and the land (Dahyu). In order to link these four aspects, the Persian
bureaucracy was made increasingly complex as to satisfy the needs of the Imperial population.
Because of this, the administration aimed to provide public services which would ‘do
good’ and improve the lives of the citizens. This emphasis on doing good was promoted further
by the aspect of duality present in Zoroastrianism; Good and Evil, Light and Darkness where evil
was an adversary of god and his ways. In modern society it is assumed that ‘good’ policy
designed to benefit the people is a given, and should be implemented, but this is only
a relatively recent phenomenon based upon the Achaemenid example, 2,500 years ago.
The colossal Achaemenid Empire required an expanded Achaemenid bureaucracy, which took
the form of a five-tier hierarchical structure and formed the governance of the new Persian
State. The Great King sat at the peak of this pyramid from which all power flowed; he had
supreme authority and recognised ‘no equal on earth’. His word was law, however his
word was almost always based on consultation with various advisors. Persian nobility, experts
in the bureaucracy, an advisor council and his ministers all provided counsel to their
monarch, who was in turn expected to heed the advice. While the King of Kings could
in theory do whatever he desired, he was practically limited by the authority enjoyed by his nobles
and ancient Persian traditions. Below their monarch, the Imperial court played
a large role in politics and administration due to its position as the central government
in Susa. Various powerful institutions and officials of the Empire, such as military
commanders and the treasurer, were present here. This court also played a key role in
checking the power of the Satraps, who were subordinate to the Great King and his court.
The Satraps were governors of the various provinces and possessed tremendous power in
the internal administration of their Satrapy. They were mainly appointed from the high Persian
nobility, but in some cases local rulers were appointed to govern their own regions. The
responsibilities of these provincial leaders included maintenance of law and order, oversight
of civil administration, tax collection and levying Satrapal troops in the case of war.
A reliable satrapy had more autonomy, whereas a rebellious satrapy such as Egypt would be
more tightly controlled and its privileges would be removed.
Much like the feudal nobility of medieval Europe, a Satrap possessed immense power,
but unlike the European Dukes and Barons, there existed many methods by which the central
government assured the compliance of their regional rulers. While the Satrap was in full
control of their Satrapy’s civil administration, a centrally appointed military general was
assigned to command and oversee the provincial military levy. This lessened the chance of
any rebellion, as there was a much lower chance of BOTH the Satrap and the appointed commander
revolting. Various positions within the Satrapy royal court were also agents of the Great
King. The ‘Eye of the King’ station essentially functioned was a legal extension of the monarch’s
will and functioned as a sort of state attorney, whereas the ‘Ear of the King’ was the
inspector general of a Satrapy, and would check for any mismanagement or corruption,
before reporting his findings. Perhaps the most authoritative position of
central government control in the Satrapies were the ‘Kings’ Secretaries’. They
functioned as a direct and independent link between the king and the Satrap, as a monitor
to check the Satrapal court and administration, and as a model bureaucrat. In addition, they
were the trusted confidant who would read the king’s private letters to the Satraps.
An example of the gravitas wielded by this official is shown in the case of Oroetes,
the Satrap of Phrygia, Lydia and Ionia, who had defied central authority and had committed
many crimes. 1,000 Persians functioned as his personal bodyguard, however when the revered
King’s Secretary read out Darius the Great’s instructions for the 1,000 bodyguards to cease
their service of Oroetes and to execute him, they did so without hesitation, for if the
King’s Secretary had proclaimed it, it must have indeed been the word of the Great King,
who they would not disobey. The fifth and final layer of governance were
the sub-satrapal or local governors, who were subservient to their Satraps. These lower
officials were often recruited not only from Medes and Persians, but also from the local
population, a practice which often assisted the flexible Persian administration in respecting
the traditions of the many peoples under their rule
In contrast to their brutal Assyrian predecessors, who ruled through fear and reprisal, the Achaemenid
Persians reversed this policy and adopted a tolerant and respectful organizational policy
which took into account local customs and practices.
Cyrus the Great’s conduct towards the Jews is a good example of this tolerance. After
Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar conquered Judah, he deported many of the area’s inhabitants
to Babylon, forcing them to live there and plundering the sacred Temple. When Cyrus the
Great took Babylon in 539 BC, he immediately allowed all Jews to return to their homeland,
and also provided the funds needed for the construction of a second temple. This stance
lasted so long as the practices in question did not interfere with the functioning of
the central administration, which exercised an appropriate combination of centralisation
and decentralisation; the former of which allowed for political control and efficiency,
and the latter of which allowed for the respect of local traditions and flexibility.
Despite this excellent framework, increasing corruption in the massive bureaucracy and
over-taxation of the population, as well as the arrogant mindset that the Persian Empire
was invincible, eventually made the Persians vulnerable. These factors, along with the
over engagement in frivolous luxury by the ruling elite, prevented the Empire from continuing
traditions previously practiced. In 334 BC, Alexander the Great began his unprecedented
conquest of the declining Achaemenid Empire, but this did not spell doom for the administrative
structure that Cyrus and his successors had developed. The conqueror found that his new
domain’s administrative bureaucracy was so efficient and competent that he instituted
very little change, if any at all. This trend was continued in the subsequent
eras of Seleucid, Parthian and Sassanid dominance in the region. Even when the final ancient
Persian Empire was conquered by the Muslims in 651, their administrative system did not
fall. Conversely, the highly advanced Persian traditions ‘captured the conqueror’ almost
immediately, and the Iranian bureaucracy continued its long tradition in its own language. By
the time of the Abbasid Caliphate, the Muslims in many regions were totally Persianised.
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