When someone mentions the Normans, the general public tends to conjure up images of William
the Conqueror and the Battle of Hastings. Iconic as that war was, England was not the
only place they left their mark. At the turn of the first millennium, in the heart of the
Mediterranean, Norman warriors would create one of the most prosperous and culturally
diverse realms in Medieval European history. Welcome to our series on the Norman Conquest
of Southern Italy, and the creation of the Kingdom of Sicily.
The year was 911, and the Vikings were at the height of their power. The Pagan warriors
asserted their influence from the Anglo-Saxon heartland to the rivers of Russia. One such
Viking was Rollo, a Norse Warchief whose relentless raids in the Lower Seine Valley had made him
the bane of the Kingdom of West Frankia. To stop this destruction in his realm, the Frankish
King, Charles the Simple, offered Rollo land in return for protection against other raiders.
The warlord accepted, and his followers were consolidated into the Duchy of Normandy. In
time, they would become some of the most influential warriors in the history of Medieval Europe.
The Normans quickly assimilated, absorbing the French language and Latin Christianity.
Among the other things they adapted from the Franks was a Feudal system of Governance,
albeit with a hardy Norman flair. Fiefs in Normandy were owned primarily by armed Knights,
and maintained through the sword. In a small Duchy with a growing population, conflicts
between minor lords seeking to increase their landholdings were the norm. This constant
fighting maintained the intensely martial culture of the Normans’ ancestors, and this
created a problem. Before long, there were more Knightly warlords in Normandy fighting
over land than there was land to go around. As a result, a gradual exodus took form. Much
like their seafaring pagan predecessors, many young Norman Knights began migrating abroad,
seeking land, riches, and the glory of battle in warmer, more fertile countries. Their travels
would take many itinerant warriors southwards, and into the heart of the Latin world.
In the early 11th century, the Italian Peninsula was a thoroughly divided land. By the year
1,000 AD, Northern Italy was controlled by the Holy Roman Emperors of Germany. Southern
Italy, however, was a patchwork of petty states. Benevento, Salerno, and Capua were ruled by
Princes of the Lombards, a Germanic people who had swept into Italy in the decades after
the Gothic wars of 554AD. Much like the Normans, these hardy northern warriors had assimilated
into the culture of their adopted homeland, and had quickly become Latin-speaking Christians.
Meanwhile, the Eastern Roman Empire clung on to the last of their Italian holdings in
the southernmost peninsulas of Apulia and Calabria. Five hundred years prior, Emperor
Justinian had managed to return most of Italy to the Empire, but Lombard invasions in the
following decades saw most of the country slip from their fingers. Further south still,
the island of Sicily remained fertile and prosperous. Once having belonged to Eastern
Rome, it had been conquered by the Arab Aghlabid dynasty between 831 and 965. By the 11th century,
another Arab dynasty - the Kalbids - ruled it. The Normans looked upon the decentralized
yet wealthy lands between Syracuse and Capua, and saw boundless opportunity.
In 1017, a group of Norman pilgrims was traveling through Gargano, en route to the Shrine of
St. Michael, their warlike holy patron. There, they were approached by Melus of Bari, a Lombard
Nobleman from Byzantine Apulia. Though ruled by the Byzantines, Apulia’s populace was
comprised mostly of Lombards. Melus’ aim was to overthrow his Greek overlords and establish
an independent domain. He entreated the Normans to join his cause, who, motivated by a thirst
for battle and plunder, agreed. Melus met the Byzantines on the field of Cannae, the
historic site of Hannibal Barca’s legendary victory 1200 years earlier. Here, the Romans
annihilated the Lombard Rebels and Norman sellswords, scoring a decisive victory, and
ending the rebellion. This initial defeat was only a minor setback
for the Normans. The Byzantine commander, Basil Boioannes, saw the Franco-Norsemen for
what they were - mercenaries. Impressed by their martial prowess, he was quick to overlook
their former allegiance, and bribed a contingent of Knights to his side, offering them command
over the newly built Fortress Town of Troia. This was a clever gamble, for in 1022 an army
led by the Holy Roman Emperor, Henry II, marched south to assert control over the region, only
to be repulsed at Troia by Boioanne’s Norman hires.
The following years saw the Normans increase their prestige as the premier mercenaries
of Southern Italy. They were never short of employment opportunities, as the Byzantines,
the Pope, the Lombard Princes, and the Holy Roman Emperor constantly sought to undermine
each other’s influence in the region. Consequently, the Franco-Norse Knights often found themselves
fighting on both sides of any given conflict. This worked out well, as Normans on the winning
side of a battle used their leverage as irreplaceable allies to secure the safe release of their
brethren on the losing side. Of all the roaming Norman bands in Italy,
the largest was commanded by the enterprising warrior, Rainulf Drengot. He had fought at
Cannae in 1018, before coming into the service of The Prince of Capua, Pandulf IV. Pandulf
was a Byzantine sympathizer, so in 1026, the Lombard was deposed through a plot devised
by the Holy Roman Emperor, who installed a friendly puppet, the Duke of Teano, in his
stead. Luckily for Pandulf, the Norman mercenaries he had hired turned out to be a wise investment,
for they quickly intervened, and with Byzantine aid, spearheaded a reconquest of Capua to
help their Lombard benefactor regain his throne. Emboldened by his victory, the newly reinstated
Prince of Capua marched his armies to neighbouring Naples, where the pretender of Teano had taken
refuge. The Neapolitan Duke, Sergius IV, was ill-prepared for battle, but luck was on his
side. Rainulf, the commander of Pandulf’s Normans, and ever the shrewd mercenary, realized
that Norman dominance in Italy depended on no one ruler becoming too powerful and subjugating
the others, for only through constant warfare could they stay employed. In 1029, the Normans
promptly switched sides and joined Sergius, driving Pandulf back to Capua. Grateful for
his salvation, Sergius granted the Normans a county, comprised of the town of Aversa
and its surrounding lands. This was a thrilling development to the Northmen, who for the first
time in their 15-year presence in Italy finally had a land of their own.
Though nominally vassals of the Duke of Naples, the Normans of Aversa soon proved they served
no one but themselves, taking advantage of the endemic rivalries in the region to change
allegiances whenever it profited them. Meanwhile, a new family had entered into the peninsula.
They were the Hautevilles, comprised of the Patriarch Tancred and eight of his sons. These
fighters would soon be regarded among the most influential Normans in Italy.
In 1038, the Byzantines launched a military expedition into Muslim Sicily. This ended
in disaster, and by 1041, their Lombard subjects had once again taken the opportunity to erupt
into rebellion. Naturally, the perennial sellswords rode into Apulia lances in hand to fight with
their Latin cousins. Led by William Ironarm of the Hautevilles, the Normans defeated two
Byzantine armies at the battles of Olivento and Montemaggiore. The elite Varangian guard
fought in service of the Byzantines, led by the legendary Norwegian Prince-in-Exile Harald
Hardrada, but even they could do little against the heavy cavalry of the Norman knights.
Through typical avariciousness, the Normans soon decided that they would much rather simply
seize the land. By 1047, they had conquered a sizable chunk of Byzantine Apulia and Calabria,
and organized it into the Norman County of Melfi. Their land gains became legitimized
through the recognition of their ally, Prince Guaimar of Salerno, and the Holy Roman Emperor,
Henry III, two parties who were surely happy to see the ever-hated Byzantines humbled.
Norman rule in their Italian territories was anything but harmonious. The Franco-Norse
elite employed a harsh hand on their mostly Lombard subjects, provoking rebellions in
both Melfi and Cosenza. Indeed, for all the mercenary work the Normans had done in the
last few decades, the primary victim had always been the common people, who had taken the
brunt of their habitual pillaging. Resentment against the Norman presence in
Italy was coming to a boil. Among those watching the Normans’ behaviour in the south was
Pope Leo IX. In 1051, he had acquired temporal control of the Duchy of Benevento, whose Duke
had willingly offered himself to Papal rule for protection against the Normans. However,
no sooner had the Papacy gained this territory than it was promptly captured, naturally,
by the Normans. This did not endear them to the Pope, who,
in 1053, personally travelled south from Rome with 700 German Swabian soldiers. From there,
thousands flocked to his cause, including the Duke of Gaeta, the Prince of Benevento,
and commonfolk from almost every Lombard Principality. Piling upon this momentum were the Byzantines.
Led by their Catepan Argyrus, they assembled an army in their remaining Apulian territory
and marched for Melfi, aiming to strike from the south while the Papal forces assaulted
the Norman holdings from the north. Pope had a 6-thousand-strong army under his command,
which was a massive number for the period, and it consisted of nearly everyone the Normans
inflicted injuries upon in the last thirty years.
The Normans were aware that everything they had gained in Italy was now under existential
threat. Count Humphrey de Hauteville mustered up all loyal levies in his Apulian realm.
Robert Guiscard arrived with a contingent from Calabria, while Richard Drengot, nephew
of Rainulf, arrived with soldiers from Aversa. Altogether, they amounted to 3,000 cavalry
and 500 infantry. The Normans knew that their only hope of victory was to prevent Pope Leo
from linking up with the Byzantine army, so they took the initiative and rode north to
intercept the Papal force. On the 17th of June, 1053, the Norman host
encountered their foe camped outside the town of Civitate. The Franco-Norsemen arranged
their army in three contingents. The heavy Cavalry led by Richard Drengot were stationed
on the right, while Robert Guiscard commanded a mix of horsemen and infantry on the left.
Meanwhile, Humphrey de Hauteville oversaw archers and dismounted Knights in the center.
On the opposing side of the field stood over 6,000 men. A line of heavy Swabian infantry
extended from the center to the right-wing of the Papal army, while the left was comprised
of a disorganized mob of Italian and Lombardic levies.
The battle did not break out immediately. Despite outnumbering the Normans two to one,
the Pope still wished to wait for the arrival of his Eastern Roman allies. Meanwhile, there
was unease within the Norman ranks, for the devoutly Catholic Knights had serious misgivings
about taking arms against the Supreme Pontiff of the Church. To that end, they sent a delegation
to the Pope, offering him their homage and making overtures for peace. This was a futile
endeavor, as the Normans were only met by jeers from Leo’s German soldiers, who boldly
demanded that they return to the land from whence they came.
Diplomacy continued through the night, but the Normans could wait no longer. With each
passing moment the Byzantine reinforcements grew closer, and lacking in provisions, they
were at threat of starvation. Thus, while Leo continued to stall for a time through
fruitless negotiations, the Normans launched their attack.
Richard Drengot was the first to strike. His heavy cavalry barreled down upon the Papal
left to thundering effect. The disorganized hoi polloi of militias and rebels were simply
no match against the impact of a highly trained, fully disciplined Norman cavalry charge. They
broke without a fight, and Richard’s knights began cutting down their enemies with ease.
Meanwhile, the Swabians had begun trading volleys of arrow fire with the company of
Humphrey. Soon, the German infantry marched up the hill in the center of the battlefield,
where they engaged the Norman Knights in a fierce melee. Unlike their Italian counterparts,
the Swabians were able warriors, wielding their two-handed swords with ferocity. For
a time, they were able to hold off the Normans. Up until now, Robert Guiscard had kept his
men in reserve, but seeing his brother in peril, he promptly rallied his command and
charged into battle, engaging the Swabian right. Still, the Germans held their own,
and it seemed like the Normans had finally met a foe able to match them in martial prowess.
This stalemate was broken when Richard’s right flank finally managed to detangle themselves
from the disarrayed mass of Italians they’d been slaughtering, and joined the fight at
the center. Overwhelmed, the Swabians knew the battle was lost. Rather than surrender,
they chose to die fighting to the last man. Following their victory, the Norman host rode
up to the walls of Civitate, where the Pope had taken refuge. Some sources claim that
Leo surrendered himself to the Normans to prevent further bloodshed, while others assert
that the townsfolk of Civitate threw him out on his rear.
Either way, the Normans took him hostage, and held him captive at Benevento for nine
months. When the Byzantine army heard of the Papal defeat, they became thoroughly demoralized
and retreated back home. Being good Catholics, the Normans treated the Pope less like a prisoner,
and more like an honoured guest, but this hospitality came at a price. Leo IX was forced
to officially recognize the Norman territory in Italy and promise to never again take up
arms against them. The treaty of Melfi in 1059 ratified the Duchy of Apulia and Calabria
as a legal polity, with Robert “Guiscard” de Hauteville as its Duke.
In less than forty short years, the Normans had entered the sun-kissed lands of southern
Italy, first as pilgrims, then as mercenaries, and finally as conquerors. Their foothold
in this land was secured, and they were here to stay. The next episode will see the ever-ambitious
Robert of the House of Hauteville turn his attention southwards, and bring the might
of the Normans upon the Islamic rulers of the isle of Sicily, so make sure you are subscribed
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