Praxeology ″action″, λόγος ″talk, speech″) is the deductive study of human
action based on the notion that humans engage in purposeful behavior, as
opposed to reflexive behavior like sneezing and inanimate behavior.
According to its theorists, with the action axiom as the starting point, it
is possible to draw conclusions about human behavior that are both objective
and universal. For example, the notion that humans engage in acts of choice
implies that they have preferences, and this must be true for anyone who
exhibits intentional behavior. The most common use of the term is in
connection with the Austrian School of Economics, as established by economist
Ludwig von Mises. Origin and etymology
Coinage of the word praxeology is often credited to Louis Bourdeau, the French
author of a classification of the sciences, which he published in his
Théorie des sciences: Plan de Science intégrale in 1882:
On account of their dual natures of specialty and generality, these
functions should be the subject of a separate science. Some of its parts have
been studied for a long time, because this kind of research, in which man
could be the main subject, has always presented the greatest interest.
Physiology, hygiene, medicine, psychology, animal history, human
history, political economy, morality, etc. represent fragments of a science
that we would like to establish, but as fragments scattered and uncoordinated
have remained until now only parts of particular sciences. They should be
joined together and made whole in order to highlight the order of the whole and
its unity. Now you have a science, so far unnamed, which we propose to call
Praxeology, or by referring to the influence of the environment, Mesology.
However, the term was used at least once previously, as far back as 1608, by
Clemens Timpler in his Philosophiae practicae systema methodicum. In this
work, Timpler, when examining ethics, goes on to say:
The general ethics falls into two parts: 1) Aretologie and 2) Praxiologie, i.e.,
of virtue and of their action.... This distinction between the moral actions of
the virtues seems a novelty; but it's necessary, however, because the habit of
virtue and the move to action do not coincide.
It was later mentioned by Robert Flint in 1904. The popular definition of this
word was first given by Alfred V. Espinas, the French philosopher and
sociologist and the forerunner of the modern Polish school of the science of
efficient action. The Austro-American school of economics was also based on a
philosophical science of the same kind. Again in the different spelling, the
word was used by the English psychologist Charles Arthur Mercier, and
then proposed by Knight Dunlap to John B. Watson as a better name for his
behaviorism. It was rejected by Watson, but was accepted by the Chinese
physiologist of behavior, Zing-Yang Kuo in 1935, and mentioned by William
McDougall. Previously the word praxiology, with the
meaning Espinas gave to it, was used by Tadeusz Kotarbiński and some time later
by several economists, such as the Ukrainian, Eugene Slutsky in his attempt
to base economics on a theory of action, the Austrian Ludwig von Mises, the
Russian Marxist, Nikolai Bukharin during the Second International Congress of
History of Science and Technology in London, and the Pole, Oscar Lange in
1959, and later. The Italian philosopher, Carmelo
Ottaviano, was using the Italianised version, prassiologia, in his treatises
starting from 1935, but in his own way, as a theory of politics. After the
Second World War the use of the term praxeology spread widely. After the
emigration of von Mises to America his pupil Murray Rothbard defended the
praxeological approach. A revival of Espinas's approach in France was
revealed in the works of Pierre Massé, the eminent cybernetician, Georges
Théodule Guilbaud, the Belgian logician, Leo Apostel, the cybernetician, Anatol
Rapoport, Henry Pierron, psychologist and lexicographer, François Perroux,
economist, the social psychologist, Robert Daval, the well-known
sociologist, Raymond Aron and the methodologists, Abraham Antoine Moles
and Roland Caude. Under the influence of Tadeusz
Kotarbiński, praxeology flourished in Poland. A special 'Centre of Praxeology'
was created under the organizational guidance of the Polish Academy of
Sciences, with its own periodical, called at first Materiały
Prakseologiczne, and then abbreviated to Prakseologia. It published hundreds of
papers by different authors, and the materials for a special vocabulary
edited by Professor Tadeusz Pszczolowski, the leading praxeologist
of the younger generation. A sweeping survey of the praxeological approach is
to be found in the paper by the French statistician, Micheline Petruszewycz, A
propos de la praxéologie. Ludwig von Mises was influenced by
several theories in forming his work on praxeology, including Immanuel Kant's
works, Max Weber's work on methodological individualism, and Carl
Menger's development of the subjective theory of value.
Austrian Economics Austrian Economics relies heavily on
praxeology in the development of its economic theories. Ludwig von Mises
considered economics to be a sub-discipline of praxeology. Austrian
School economists continue to use praxeology and deduction, rather than
empirical studies, to determine economic principles.
Advocates of praxeology also say that it provides insights for the field of
ethics. Categories
The categories of praxeology, the general, formal theory of human action,
as outlined by Murray Rothbard are as follows:
A. The Theory of the Isolated Individual B. The Theory of Voluntary Interpersonal
Exchange 1. Barter
2. With Medium of Exchange a. On the Unhampered Market
b. Effects of Violent Intervention with the Market
c. Effects of Violent Abolition of the Market
C. The Theory of Propositional Exchange, or Law and Argumentation Ethics,
D. The Theory of War – Hostile Action E. The Theory of Games
F. Unknown Criticisms
Thomas Mayer has argued that the Austrian economists' rejection of the
scientific method, which employs positivism and empiricism in the
development of theories, invalidates Austrian methodology. Austrians argue
that logical positivism cannot predict or explain human action, and that
empirical data itself is insufficient to describe economics, which in turn
implies that empirical data cannot falsify economic theory, and that
logical positivism is not the proper method of conducting economic science.
Economist Mark Blaug has criticized over-reliance on methodological
individualism, arguing it would rule out all macroeconomic propositions that
cannot be reduced to microeconomic ones, and hence reject almost the whole of
received macroeconomics. See also
Behavioral economics Bounded rationality
Cognitive science Methodological individualism
Self-efficacy Semiotics
Social actions Thymology
References Further reading
Selgin, G. A.. Praxeology and Understanding: An Analysis of the
Controversy in Austrian Economics. The Review of Austrian Economics, 2, pp.
19–58. Smith, George H.. "Praxeology". In
Hamowy, Ronald. The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE;
Cato Institute. pp. 387–8. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC
750831024. Tadeusz Kotarbiński, Praxiology: an
introduction to the sciences of efficient action, Pergamon Press, 1965.
Sophia, Volumes 36–38, p. 126. External links
Preface to von Mises' book Epistemological Problems of Economics
The Ultimate Foundation of Economic Science by Ludwig von Mises
Praxeology: The Methodology of Austrian Economics by Murray Rothbard
Praxeology as the Method of the Social Sciences by Murray Rothbard
In Defense of Extreme Apriorism by Murray Rothbard
Economics and Praxeology by Ludwig von Mises
Time and Praxeology by Ludwig von Mises Praxeology as Law & Economics by Josef
Šíma Mises's Non-Trivial Insight by Robert P.
Murphy Psychology versus Praxeology by Robert
P. Murphy Praxeology, Economics and its Subsets
Defined by Nima Mahdjour