When you think of Ancient Greece surely you think of the great city-states of Athens and Sparta.
Perhaps the mighty Kingdom of Macedonia and its ruler Alexander the Great comes to mind.
These civilisations left their mark on world history, and even nowadays,
their names echo a celebrated history. But by the late 3rd century BC, a rising power ended the
position of influence of Classical Greece and the Kingdom of Macedonia. The rising Roman Republic
fought three wars against Macedon, with Greek city-states fluctuating in alliance. It led to
nothing less than a clash of great forces and the eventual rise of Rome as a hegemon in the region.
Classical Greece (359-201 BC)
Already during the 5th and 4th century BC the Greek city-states managed to attain great
political power around the Meditteranean. There were a plethora of reasons for this,
among them the relative overpopulation of the city-states and a large number
of this population participating in warfare. To the north of the influential city-states
of Athens, Sparta and Thebes, lay the tiny Kingdom of Macedonia. In 359 BC,
its new king, Philips II, began his two-decade-long reign, during which he
managed to gain considerable control over mainland Greece. In 338 BC, at the Battle of Chaeronea,
Philips beat an alliance of Greek city-states and gained hegemony over Southern Greece,
except Sparta. Philips established the League of Corinth under the pretext of unifying a Greek
power block against the eastern Achaemenid Empire. He passed away two years later,
upon which his twenty-year-old son Alexander became Macedon's king.
Alexander managed to suppress several uprisings by tribes in the Balkan. City-state Thebes,
attempting to exploit the presumably indecisive new ruler, was besieged, defeated and razed to
the ground. When Spartan King Agis III took up arms against Macedon a few years later,
he too was beaten by Macedon general Antipater, killed, and Sparta was forced to join the League.
Alexander's Macedonian army, augmented with thousands of soldiers from his Greek allies,
not to mention the mercenaries, became infamous for the size and distance of its military
campaigns. The size and scope of these campaigns were unprecedented, and young Alexander remained
undefeated in battle. Nowadays, the name Alexander is still associated with the legendary commander.
When Alexander passed away in 323 BC, his empire tore into separate parts,
governed by rulers all engulfed in their own wars. As for Greece, for decades, the city-states
faced Macedonian satraps and kings fighting each other, and by the end of the century,
the formal cooperation of the Corinthian bond was abolished. A period of chaos and anarchy followed.
Around this time several Peloponnesian city-states joined a political federation,
the Achaean League, which would last for nearly 140 years. This was their only way to harness
some resistance against other powerhouse states in the region, although the slow
decay of their influence continued. Sources are a bit conflicting, but it is likely that
in response to the Achaean League and influence of the Kingdom of Macedon, the Aetolian League
was established by central-Greek city-states. Athens and Sparta were historically two of the
most influential Greek city-states. Throughout the 3rd century, Athens' political influence
kept decreasing, and in Sparta, two consecutive kings attempted to revive its old institutions.
When this appeared to be successful, the Macedonians and members of the Achaean League
quickly stepped in. At the Battle of Sellasia, they defeated Sparta. It retained its independence
but ceased to be a powerful actor in the region. The Kingdom of Macedonia too suffered trouble,
seeing half a century of dynastic wars. When in 277 BC Antigonus II Gonatas became king of
Macedonia, bringing stability, most southern Greek city-states were already independent in practice.
Meanwhile, Macedonia protected Greece from northern central- and eastern European tribes,
occasionally trekking south. In the early 3rd century, Celts held large raiding parties and,
in 279 BC, they even managed to penetrate deep into Macedonia and the Greek heartland.
Roman Republic / First Macedon War (214 to 205 BC)
By the late 3rd century BC, Rome managed to unify the Italian peninsula under its rule.
Thanks to Rome's victory in the Illyrian Wars, waged to curb piracy in the Adriatic,
Rome established a protectorate along the Adriatic coast.
It also emerged victorious against Carthage during the First Punic War, lasting for 23 years.
This war was fought mainly on the seas around Sicily. Upon defeating Carthage, Rome gained
possession of Sicily and became the dominant power in the waters of the western Mediterranean.
In the inter-war years, Rome annexed Sardinia. Peace didn't last, and in 218 BC, the Second Punic
War broke out. Lasting for 17 years, Hannibal first attacked the Roman-allied city of Saguntum,
and without waiting for a response, spectacularly crossed the Alps to invade the Italian peninsula.
Roman forces tried to stop Hannibal, first at Trebia, and then at Lake Trasimene. Both times,
Hannibal emerged victorious, wiping away the Roman legions.
In August 216 BC at Cannae, Hannibal inflicted one of Rome's worst defeats ever. His approximately
50.000-strong army faced a much larger Roman force, and crushed them. It is estimated for every
casualty on Hannibal's side, at least eight Roman soldiers were killed. So how exactly is
Rome's war with Carthage relevant for the Republic's eventual conquering of Greece?
Well, to the Roman Republic's east, a young and ambitious king saw his chance to expand his power
at the expense of the war-embroiled Republic. King Philippos V of Macedon, just 23-years-old,
tried to exploit Rome's preoccupation with Carthage. After hearing of Rome's
crushing defeat at Cannae, Philip entered into an alliance with Hannibal and declared war on Rome.
For nine years, Philip waged war against Rome, although admittedly, the actual combat limited
itself to the Roman Illyrian protectorate. Fearing a naval invasion from Macedon's fleet,
the Romans appointed Marcus Valerius Laevinus as commander of the Roman fleet. The Roman troops
swiftly relieved the Illyrian protectorate and pushed Philip's forces towards Macedon.
While the war against Carthage began shifting in Rome's favour, Philip could not aid his ally,
Hannibal. The reason for this was the alliance Rome forged with the Aetolian League and King
Attalus I of Pergamon. The Achaean League, however, supported Philip. But neither
side was able to defeat the other decisively. In 205 BC both the Romans and Macedonians realised
the war wasn't going to lead anywhere, at least not for now. They signed the peace of Phoenice.
Philip had to sever his alliance with Hannibal, and in turn could keep the conquered Illyrian
territories. Frankly, although Philip didn't achieve any of his goals of aiding Hannibal
or invading the Italian peninsula, the war didn't end all that badly for Macedon.
Still, just four years later, Rome decisively defeated Carthage at Zama.
And with Carthage defeated and Rome's elite combative as ever, their eyes now turned to the
east. To that king that dared to take up arms against the Republic during an unstable time.
Second Macedonian War (201 to 196 BC)
Meanwhile, a Greek politician warned of the 'thunderstorm in the west.' These warnings were
in vain, and after defeating Carthage, Rome nearly immediately declared war again against Macedonia.
The Roman population was still battle fatigued from the Punic war, but consul Sulpicius Galba
managed to convince them war was inevitable. A diplomatic envoy was sent to Philip, dictating
terms that would lead to war if he did not agree to them. Philip's response was clear: Rome didn't
respect the Peace of Phoenice, marking the start of the Second Macedonian War. Both sides began
preparing their armies for the inevitable battle. So why did Rome enter war so soon after the
bloody and prolonged war against Hannibal? One of Rome's motives surely was vengeance because King
Philip had callously attempted to exploit the Second Punic War for his own gain. Imperialism
also played a part, as the Roman elite was expansionist in nature, and after emerging
victorious in the Punic Wars, Rome considered itself the hegemon of the Meditteranean. The
official pretence was that Rome would liberate the Greek city-states from Macedonian yoke, however.
Another factor that likely played a role were rumours reaching Rome. Philip and Seleucid King
Antiochus III supposedly forged a pact to dethrone the 5-year-old Ptolemaeus V Epiphanes of Egypt.
This would give both kings a significant cash- and manpower injection, something
the Romans weren't eager to face. Once again, the Aetolian League
supported the Roman Republic's war. Galba crossed the Adriatic Sea to Appolonia
and planned to invade Macedonia from the west. He organised his allies, Dardanians and Illyrians,
to attack Macedonia from the north, while the Aetolian League would attack it from the south.
Part of the Roman fleet would sail around the Peloponnese to attack the Kingdom from the east.
Because of seasonal changes and the game of cat-and-mouse that followed, Philip prolonged
the conflict. Both sides tried to fight battles on their own terms, leading to a Roman victory
at Ottolobus and a Macedonian victory at Pluinna. Consul elections led to Galba being replaced,
first by Villius and then by the young 30-year-old able commander Quinctius Flamininus.
Flamininus was unusual in that he loved everything Greek, speaking and writing the language and being
knowledgeable about the culture and classics. Under this able commander, the Roman legionnaires
certainly gave the Macedonian Phalanx a run for their money. When it became clear
the Romans were winning the war, the Achaean League, Sparta and Thebe too joined their side.
At Cynoscephalae, they fought the decisive battle. Flaminius defeated the Macedonian army,
and the Romans forced their peace onto them. Historiography tends to describe the peace
terms as 'suspiciously mild.' Macedonia had to pay reparations, relinquish its fleet
and all Greek city-states were 'liberated', with Roman garrisons stationed on strategic
locations to guarantee this 'liberation.' But Philip was allowed to retain his throne.
This liberation of Greek city-states meant that they now had to behave as obedient
clients of their patron Rome in the eyes of the Romans. The Greek city-states didn't have
experience with a relationship such as this and took their freedom too literally. New tensions
between them and Rome followed. It didn't help that to the east, Seleucid King Antiochus III
preyed on the weakened city-states, exploiting the absence of Macedonia as protector.
Despite Roman diplomatic envoys urging Antiochus to stay away, he invaded Greece in 192 BC. In the
subsequent Roman-Seleucid War, lasting for four years, Rome and its allies showed their might.
Seleucid forces were decisively defeated and driven from Greece at Thermopylae in 191.
But to Antiochus' surprise, Rome made proper use of their momentum and penetrated deep into Asia
minor. At the Battle of Magnesia, Consul Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus, together with Eumenes
II King of Pergamon, defeated Antiochus' army. Large parts of Asia minor were ceded to Roman
allies, and Rome managed to obtain hegemony over Greece and Asia Minor. Because they considered
their wars fought to be defensive, they didn't actively pursue expansionist politics.
The threat in Asia minor appeared to have been neutralised, but once again, within the Kingdom of
Macedonia, worrisome developments quickly followed each other up. King Philip V passed away in 179
BC. The last 15 years of his life, he had been somewhat of a loyal amicus of the Roman Republic,
preserving his Kingdom's relative autonomy. His ambitious and anti-Roman son Perseus
succeeded him. Although he tried to show his goodwill initially,
he lacked the diplomatic tact his father harnessed during the final years of his life.
His policies aimed at increasing Macedonia's influence in the region
made it seem like Macedonia was slowly rearming itself. With tensions already high,
the suspicious Romans decided to launch a preventive war which they declared in 171 BC.
Third Macedon War (171-168 BC)
There is still a lively debate among historians about Rome's role during the Third Macedon War:
were they ruthlessly expansionist or reactive to Macedon's new ambitious king?
There still isn't a concrete answer, and although Macedon was weakened, they held out against
three years of Roman military campaigns. Perseus faced the might of Rome more or
less alone. His brothers-in-law Prusias II of Bithynia and Antiochus IV kept
their head down or supported the Romans, an approach shared by most Greek city-states.
Roman general Publius Licinius Crassus commanded Roman forces but was defeated in a surprise attack
at Thessalia. Perseus sent a diplomatic envoy to the Roman commander to broker for
peace, which Crassus refused. During the second year of the war,
Perseus managed to expand his military and strengthen his positions at the expense of Rome.
Small Roman contingents were beaten during minor skirmishes, and Macedon slowly expanded itself in
Illyria, Perrhaebia, Thessalia and Aetolia. In 169 BC, the newly elected Roman consul Quintus Marcius
Philippus received command over Roman forces. Yet he too was unable to properly use the Roman fleet
or make much progress, and by the end of the year, he slowly moved towards southern Macedonia at
Phila. There was a serious risk of a stalemate developing, and both the trading hub of Rhodos
and King Prusias of Bithynia offered to mediate peace between the two states. But the consul
elections of 168 BC had taken place, and Lucius Aemilius Paullus was elected as consul. The fact
he promised he could win the war in 15 days if given command probably reveals that Rome wasn't
eager to broker for peace anytime soon. And although 15 days was a bit ambitious,
when Paullus arrived at the Roman base camp next to the mouth of Elpeus,
the war certainly picked up the pace. In June, at the Battle of Pydna,
Paullus defeated the Macedon Phalanx, infantry and cavalry. It was a bloodbath,
breaking whatever was left of Macedon's military power. King Perseus surrendered to Paullus. He was
taken to Rome in chains and paraded through the streets before being imprisoned at Alba Fucens,
where he passed away two years later. It marked the definitive end of the Kingdom of Macedonia.
Before he returned to Rome, Paullus travelled through Greece. A grand tour,
if you will. When he reached the Temple of Apollo in Delphi, he ran into a 9-meter high pillar
sporting a bust of Perseus. Paullus ordered it to be razed to the ground and replaced with himself,
riding a horse. To top it off, he had the subtext engraved in Latin, symbolically emphasising
the dominance of Roman culture over Greek. As for Greece, still after all these wars,
Rome was content not holding any territory themselves as long as they were the hegemon in the
region. Greece was split up into four separate republics. Trading hub Rhodos was punished for
attempting to mediate during the war, and had to agree to a free port. Romans plundered around 70
Greek cities for supporting Macedonia, and they enslaved approximately 150.000 men and women.
Breaking the Final Resistance (168-146 BC)
So even after this defeat, Macedonia and Greece weren't entirely incorporated into the
Roman Republic. That is not to say Rome wasn't getting tired of the petty wars within Greece.
In 149 BC, a pretender to the Macedonian throne, claiming to be the son of Perseus, challenged
Roman client states. This Andriscus was initially successful in contesting Roman indirect hegemony
of the region, even defeating a Roman army sent to stop him and gaining much ground in Thessaly. But
when Roman commander Quintus Caecilius Metellus challenged him at the Second Battle of Pydna,
he was defeated. Managing to flee the scene, his men betrayed him and exchanged him to the Romans.
After waging four wars against Macedonian insurrection, the Romans now decided enough
and properly integrated the former Kingdom as a province to their Republic.
However, after Macedonia was annexed, several Greek city-states, part of the Achaean League,
participated in a short-lived revolt. Although traditional allies, there had been much discontent
between Rome and the League because of the latter's own expansionist ambitions.
Roman armies swiftly and ruthlessly crushed this Achaean War, and the League could do nothing but
let Rome dictate the peace. They disbanded the League. Coincidentally, in North Africa,
the city of Carthage had been regaining its strength. In 146 BC, Rome completely razed
Carthage. In Greece they administered the exact same treatment to the ancient
city of Corinth, the hub of the resistance. With this final destruction and subduing of the
city-states, Classical Greece's history came to an end. Several cities such as Sparta and Athens
remained, on paper, autonomous. In practice, they had to fully follow Rome's wishes, however.
When in 133 BC King Attalus of Pergamon died, he bequeathed his entire Kingdom to
Rome. Symbolically, Greece and Macedon were rather quickly entirely embedded into the
Roman Republic's territory. To the east was now Asia minor under Rome's administration,
and to the west the Republic's territory spanned all the way to Iberia.
Exactly a century after the razing of Corinth, Rome's dictator Julius Caesar ordered the
rebuilding of Corinth as a Roman colony, partially populated with Roman citizens. Two decades later
southern- and middle Greece was united in a separate province: Achaea. After centuries of
chaos, wars and anarchy, the region could slowly begin the process of recovery. But it wouldn't
play a significant military or political role in the region as it had in the centuries before.