In the next chapter of the Malleus Maleficarum, Kramer delves into yet another set of questions
that baffled him greatly. He asks, ‘What is the Source of the Increase of Works of
Witchcraft? When comes it that the Practice of Witchcraft hath so notably increased?’
And considering his own time period of the 15th century, what he was basically asking here was
‘why is witchcraft becoming so prominent?’ For anyone who’s been following the series so far,
you’ll probably already know the answer. But of course, in typical Kramer fashion,
he proceeds to consider this from a philosophical and warped religious standpoint, as opposed to
just applying Occam's Razor and deducing that the simplest most logical answer was the correct one.
In this case, the reason why witchcraft was so notably increased in the 15th century,
was because more people were being accused of it. Not because it was actually happening.
But let’s see what our favourite 15th century fruitcake has to say about it.
He begins the chapter by once again concentrating on the incubus and the succubus and considers
whether it is a Catholic belief to determine that the origin of witchcraft does not come
from the spawn of these ungodly creatures, but instead comes from the wickedness of man himself.
Put simply, he comes up with arguably his most rational deduction and considers that witchcraft
is a man made concept and not something brought to us by demons. He even reinforces this idea by
referring to Saint Augustine, who according to Kramer once specified that the cause of a man’s
depravity lies in his own will, whether he sins on his own or by another’s suggestion.
This is a pretty reasonable conclusion; man ‘sins’ because he wants to - he does bad things because
he is compelled to, whether through his own need to satiate an internal desire or because
he is goaded by someone else. He continues that man is the cause of his own wickedness and that
because man has free-will, he is allowed to be wicked if he really wants to be, and no demon
in existence has the capacity to change that, because a demon cannot affect free will. Now,
you might say, ‘why would a demon want to change a person’s wicked behaviour’, and you’re right,
they wouldn’t. But Kramer’s point here is that it is man who decides to actualise his sin and whilst
a devil might provide him with the motivations for sin, man is ultimately responsible.
He begins to then quote from Ecclesiastes Dogma to drive home this point, stating that not all our
evil thoughts are stirred up by the devil, but sometimes they arise from the operation of our
own judgement. However, he then details an idea that stars have the ability to affect a human’s
actions too, whether good or bad. He deduces that this might be believed, because if stars were not
capable of influencing man, then astrologers would not study them in the hopes of reading the future.
He adds that the stars may also influence the spells cast by demons and the alignment of the
stars may determine the potency of a spell on man. Kramer further adduces that men who are called
lunatics, are not psychologically disturbed or suffering from some kind of undiagnosed condition,
but instead just simply possessed by demons. Not only was such a sentiment incredibly regressive,
but it would prevent these ‘lunatics’ as he labels them, from being understood from a
scientific or psychological perspective. Instead, Kramer believed that suffering from any form of
psychosis was not a medical disorder but instead a case of demonic possession. Furthermore, he seems
to suggest that ‘episodic psychosis’, whereby a person may be fine one moment and different
the next was not a symptom of a mental condition either, but instead a tightening and relenting of
a demon’s hold on a person. To make it even more bizarre, Kramer believed that this tightening and
loosening of a demon’s hold was determined by the phases of the moon. But of course, if you thought
he was going to actually explain any of this in any scientific detail, then more fool you.
In this section, he also speaks of necromancers and that necromancers, as per his own
observations, study certain constellations for the invoking of demons and that they wouldn’t
do any of this if the stars were not an influencer in both the demons and our own behaviour. It isn’t
long of course before he reaches for more material by Saint Augustine and tells us that according to
this ‘pillar of erudition’, demons can manipulate pretty much any of the ‘lower bodies’, those which
consist of herbs, stones, animals, certain sounds and even voices. With this idea, he seeks to show
the subtle powers that he believed the demons had, that they could take the form of herbs and
stones and somehow trick man into utilising them for sin. He suggests that demons took the form of
animals and various figures and as these forms, perhaps like the cat as infamously seen amongst
traditional witchcraft trials, could harbour evil powers for which to share with a human.
There’s also his idea that demons could take the form of voices, perhaps alluding once more to
some kind of psychosis where voices are heard in one’s head, but due to his lack of understanding,
he’s quick to chalk this up to demons instead of a greater, psychological condition.
All these examples that Kramer speaks of are what he deems, ‘the lower bodies’.
The higher bodies, (or the heavenly bodies) as you might imagine, are the angels and have infinite
power over the lower ones. With this, he kind of backtracks on his statements that the lower bodies
have any noteworthy power because these would have been kept in check by the heavenly bodies. Yet,
he continues that witches were more subject to the lower bodies because their deeds proceeded
from these bodies - these being herbs, stones, animals, voices and figures. It’s impossible
to really know what he means here, but it might be deduced that because a witch could be accused
for dabbling in the occult if she was to be seen studying herbology, alchemy or even some form of
agricultural science that involved herbs, stones or something of the like, then these things had
to be evil, or be someway tainted by demons. A person suffering from psychosis or suffering from
hallucinations may also have been condemned, for the observation of voices or figures that weren’t
actually there were also characteristic of Kramer’s ‘lower bodies’. In short,
a reason for the increase of witchcraft (again, according to Kramer) was because A. There was
a curiosity for herbs, stones and animals, which may have been conflated into the idea
that witches used such resources in spells and hexes. And B.) The increase in hallucinations,
fits, mental illness and undiagnosed conditions could not be explained by any science, and so, the
devil simply became responsible and such symptoms were evidence of a person’s association with him.
But conversely, Kramer does supply an alternative in that it is impossible to produce an effect
without a cause. In this context, he means that a witch cannot become a witch without first being
led astray by the devil. This is an interesting point that Kramer supplied, for he inadvertently
admits that everyone, both men and women are born with some innocence as far as spiritual matters
are concerned. However, he believes that women are more likely to be led astray by the devil which is
why they become witches and why they end up doing his bidding. He quotes from Saint Isidore’s Ethics
Volume 8, where he paraphrases, “Witches are so called from the enormity of their magic spells;
for they disturb the elements and confound the minds of men, and without any venomous draught,
but merely by virtue of incantations, destroy souls.” This is one of the first times we see him
actually talk about what witches can do, having spent much of the first few chapters talking about
demons. With such words, Kramer would give rise to what would become common consensus at a time where
women were persecuted for a myriad of reasons. Those suspected of being a witch could cast magic
spells, hex a man into doing her bidding, destroy a person’s soul merely by uttering a curse.
Despite having no actual evidence of such things, it was words like
Kramer’s that did light the spark of what would become quite simply an extermination.
Kramer then goes on to provide an alternative idea that the stars cannot influence mankind into
doing bad things, because if man’s sin is the effect, then stars cannot be the cause, as the
two are simply unrelated. Kramer reinforces such a notion with Aristotle in his ‘Ethics’ saying that
thought is not something we have control over, but instead thought is extrinsic. With this,
he states that we have no control over what we think and that these thoughts that we think,
whether good or bad, are put into our heads by the external. He speaks of man’s will and
that man only does something, not because he wants to do it, but because he has been subtly
pre-manipulated by an extrinsic value. There is some truth to this idea in that, that which is
outside of us may influence our thinking. But to suggest that all of our thoughts are conceived
by extrinsic influence is an oversimplification. In any case, Kramer continues that our thoughts,
which are given to us by external factors, dictate how we act and that to think of it being any other
way, that is to say, to think of human thought as being fortuitous, is in his own words, ‘absurd’.
He goes on to say that the beginning of good and good actions come from God,
for God cannot be the cause of sin. If a person therefore listened to God and only God,
they could not conceive wicked thoughts and thus, could not commit wicked actions.
Conversely, if a person conceives wicked thoughts, then he is listening to the devil and with these
wicked thoughts, he is more likely to commit sin. Women, according to Kramer, were more likely to
conceive these wicked thoughts, thus were more likely to listen to the devil and so were more
likely to become witches. This particular argument is ironically signed off by Kramer,
who concludes, ‘And this can be no other than the devil; especially in the case of witches,
for the stars cannot influence such acts. Therefore the truth is plain.’
Kramer then turns his focus to the craftiness of the witch and how powerful she might be if
she was able to manipulate someone. He states that if a witch has power over the motive,
then she also has power over the result. For example, if she was able to convince a man that
he deserved to be rich, then she was more likely to trick him into robbing someone, or stealing, or
committing some fraud. Because the devil worked in temptation and could nudge a man onto a similar,
less righteous path, the witch was seen here to aid him in his ultimate plan to lead man astray.
The witch therefore, went hand in hand with the devil - both were on the same
team and both had the same objective in mind; to condemn man and deny him of his place in heaven.
Kramer quotes St Augustine here, telling us that this power the witch exhibits does indeed stem
from the devil, and that the devil’s ability to integrate himself in everyday life is uncanny.
He states, “This evil, which is of the devil, creeps in by all the sensual approaches;
he places himself in figures, he adapts himself to colours, he attaches himself to sounds,
he lurks in angry and wrongful conversation, he abides in smells, he impregnates with flavours and
fills with certain exhalations all the channels of the understanding. Therefore it is seen that
it is in the devil's power to influence the will, which is directly the cause of sin.”
As we can see, because Kramer believed that the devil was this powerful and evil, that he could
lurk in angry words or hide in smells, sounds and flavours, he could just as easily hide in the evil
will of man and influence man into doing terrible things. This was, according to Kramer, especially
true of witches who were much less subtle than the devil in their practices of dark magic and
manipulations upon men. Kramer supplements this argument with an idea of angels, in that
good angels are good and thus lead man to do good things, but bad angels are bad and thus lead man
to do bad things. By this logic, man wouldn’t be so bad if it wasn’t for bad angels and the devil.
Kramer then goes on to revisit the idea about witchcraft and evil being associated or having
originated with the stars. In one instance he states that witchcraft could not have
originated from astronomers and casters of horoscopes and fortune-tellers, because the
alignment of stars may have no bearing upon man’s behaviour. Indeed, this is in contradiction to the
former statement that the stars were believed to affect both the actions of man and demon alike.
He states that it is not only false, but also heretical and contrary to the Christian religion
and that true faith can not be maintained by such a notion. Of this, he goes on to say that
anyone who believes that the stars are responsible for a man’s actions is merely making excuses for
their own sinful behaviour. Instead, he puts forth yet another idea that it is the soul
that determines the complexions of the body, saying that the choleric are often wrathful,
the sanguine are kindly, the melancholy are envious and the phlegmatic are slothful. With
this notion, man’s attitude is determined not by the stars, but by his very own soul. However,
even this is not an absolute and even here he proceeds to backtrack, telling us that sometimes
the choleric can be gentle and the melancholy can be kind. To explain this, he decides that maybe,
the stars do have a part in man’s behaviour, but only from a distance and only with subtlety.
Kramer then proceeds to tell us an anecdotal tale about two brothers who fell ill,
but were cured simultaneously. Of this story, he tells us Saint Augustine agreed with Greek
physician Hippocrates over an astronomer in regards to how they were healed. Hippocrates,
he tells us, believed that both brothers had a similar character and thus, it was the alignment
of the stars that must have determined both making a recovery. Of course, Kramer fails to
acknowledge medicine, treatment or what actual affliction the brothers were suffering from.
Of the astronomer in this argument, Kramer tells us that he had believed the seemingly miraculous
recovery of both brothers came about because they shared the same horoscope, something which
Kramer believed was not as compelling a reason as Hippocrates’. Somehow, from this argument, Kramer
turns his aim back on witches believing that because he believed it was the stars that affected
the brothers’ recovery, to some degree, stars were also conducive to the wickedness of witches.
Now, if you’re confused here or sitting there scratching your heads, then fear not, you’re not
the only one. His arguments in this particular chapter have been quite all over the place.
He continues of astrology by speaking of the planets, most notably Jupiter and Saturn,
where he states, based on philosophy, that Jupiter and Saturn empty kingdoms and depopulate lands,
depending again on their alignments. Because of how confounding such a situation could be, Kramer
deems it as outside of man’s ability to affect and that in this sense, the stars and planets assume
the ability to affect man’s will. Man cannot move the planets, and because the planets affect our
behaviour, we are powerless to resist whatever path is set in front of us. Yet, he continues that
man can resist the influence of the constellations as it leads him to dissent, he just chooses not
to. He speaks here of the astronomer Ptolemy that “A wise man will be the master of the stars. For
although, since Saturn has a melancholy and a bad influence and Jupiter a very good influence, the
conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn can dispose men to quarrels and discords; yet, through free-will,
men can resist that inclination, and very easily with the help of God’s grace.”
Comets do not escape Kramer’s scrutinous eye either, as he tells us that comets are
a sign that a king is about to die. In fact, he considers that comets are not natural creations,
nor are they ‘fallen angels’ as commonly believed. Instead, he ponders on the idea that comets are
‘made’ for a particular occasion, and then they are dissolved, by the command of God.
Of course, he does not supply any suggestions as to what these ‘occasions’ are, but based
on his previous comments, regicide may be the most likely contender.
In another idea, he presents the concept that comets are created by angels,
though he does not elaborate as to what purpose they have.
Kramer concludes that whichever opinion we decide to follow, stars cannot possibly
influence mankind, whether this pertains to a man’s will or whether a man will do bad things
or not. Put simply, he concludes that man’s fate cannot be read in the stars - at least,
no one individual fate can be read from the stars. After this, we see him take aim at those who cast
horoscopes as well as ‘Mathematicians who worship the goddess of fortune’. Now, funnily enough,
Kramer makes a joke here of Saint Isidore, who according to Kramer, once did indeed believe in
a goddess who mocked human affairs in a haphazard and fortuitous manner. She is called blind since
she has no awareness of her surroundings and can have an attitude of indifference when it comes to
good and bad. ‘So much for Isidore’, Kramer jibes - mocking the saint for holding such a belief,
but in the process, also denouncing horoscopes and fortune tellers. Kramer emphasises here that
a person’s future cannot be determined by the stars or by any other means, and that
if there are other means, that is because a person has solicited the services of a witch.
He goes on to imply that St Isidore, for all his belief in this ‘goddess of fortune’ was a fool,
because he should’ve known that the only person who could bestow fortune on a person was a witch,
via the devil. The acknowledgement of another goddess was also blasphemous,
according to Kramer and could be seen as idolatry - especially if one believed that
a goddess was the one performing deeds of fortune and not witches themselves.
Kramer then proceeds to talk about three ‘celestial causes’ - the act of the will,
the act of the intellect and the act of the body. The act of will is governed only by God, the act
of the intellect is governed by an Angel and the act of the body is governed by a celestial body.
Kramer doesn’t really get into what these three celestial causes are, but instead focuses only on
the act of will - that which is directly governed by God for good works. He proceeds to quote from
scripture - Proverbs 21 specifically, stating ‘The heart of the king is in the hand of the Lord;
he turneth it whitersoever he will.’ By this, he means even the kings have their
hearts determined by God himself, so that would likely doubly apply to any regular man.
Why did Witchcraft become so prominent? Well, I think we can all agree that this was indeed
because more people were getting accused of it. In almost all cases, witchcraft
wasn’t the condemnation of the devil, it was condemnation of people who were out of the norm,
those who were more unique members of society or those who, according to Kramer,
were usually women that wanted to tear apart the fabrics of society in the name of Satan.
There’s also a case for mass hysteria which Kramer never seems to mention in his book
and the very real ‘herd mentality’ that became prevalent during these unruly times.
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Until next time