Lollardy was a political and religious movement that existed from the mid-14th
century to the English Reformation. It was initially led by John Wycliffe, a
prominent theologian who was dismissed from the University of Oxford in 1381
for criticism of the Church, especially in his doctrine on the Eucharist. The
Lollards' demands were primarily for reform of Western Christianity.
Etymology Lollard, Lollardi or Loller was the
popular derogatory nickname given to those without an academic background,
educated if at all only in English, who were reputed to follow the teachings of
John Wycliffe in particular, and were certainly considerably energized by the
translation of the Bible into the English language. By the mid-15th
century, "lollard" had come to mean a heretic in general. The alternative,
"Wycliffite", is generally accepted to be a more neutral term covering those of
similar opinions, but having an academic background.
The term is said to have been coined by the Anglo-Irish cleric, Henry Crumpe,
but its origin is uncertain. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, it
most likely derives from Middle Dutch lollaerd "mumbler, mutterer" from a verb
lollen "to mutter, mumble". It appears to be a derisive expression applied to
various people perceived as heretics—first the Franciscans and later
the followers of Wycliffe. Originally the word was a colloquial name for a
group of the harmless buriers of the dead during the Black Death, in the 14th
century, known as Alexians, Alexian Brothers or Cellites. These were known
colloquially as lollebroeders, "mumbling brothers", or "Lollhorden", from Old
High German: lollon, meaning "to sing softly" from their chants for the dead.
Three other possibilities for the derivation of Lollard are mentioned by
the Oxford English Dictionary, the Latin name lolium, Common Vetch or
tares, supposedly a reference to the biblical Parable of the Tares;
after a Franciscan named Lolhard who converted to the Waldensian way,
becoming eminent as a preacher in Guienne, then under English domination,
influencing lay English piety. He was burned at Cologne in the 1370s;
coincidentally, a Waldensian teacher named Lolhard was tried for heresy in
Austria in 1315. Middle English loller, "a lazy vagabond,
an idler, a fraudulent beggar"; but this word is not recorded in this sense
before 1582, while it is recorded as an alternative spelling of Lollard.
Beliefs One group of Lollards petitioned
Parliament with The Twelve Conclusions of the Lollards by posting them on the
doors of Westminster Hall in February 1395. While by no means a central
authority of the Lollards, the Twelve Conclusions reveal certain basic Lollard
ideas. The first Conclusion rejects the acquisition of temporal wealth by Church
leaders as accumulating wealth leads them away from religious concerns and
toward greed. The fourth Conclusion deals with the Lollard view that the
Sacrament of Eucharist is a contradictory topic that is not clearly
defined in the Bible. Whether the bread remains bread or becomes the literal
body of Christ is not specified uniformly in the gospels. The sixth
Conclusion states that officials of the Church should not concern themselves
with secular matters when they hold a position of power within the Church
because this constitutes a conflict of interest between matters of the spirit
and matters of the State. The eighth Conclusion points out the ludicrousness,
in the minds of Lollards, of the reverence that is directed toward images
of Christ's suffering. "If the cross of Christ, the nails, spear, and crown of
thorns are to be honoured, then why not honour Judas's lips, if only they could
be found?" The Lollards stated that the Catholic
Church had been corrupted by temporal matters and that its claim to be the
true church was not justified by its heredity. Part of this corruption
involved prayers for the dead and chantries. These were seen as corrupt
since they distracted priests from other work and that all should be prayed for
equally. Lollards also had a tendency toward iconoclasm. Expensive church
artwork was seen as an excess; they believed effort should be placed on
helping the needy and preaching rather than working on expensive decorations.
Icons were also seen as dangerous since many seemed to be worshiping the icons
more than God. Believing in a lay priesthood, the
Lollards challenged the Church’s authority to invest or deny the divine
authority to make a man a priest. Denying any special status to the
priesthood, Lollards thought confession to a priest was unnecessary since
according to them priests did not have the ability to forgive sins. Lollards
challenged the practice of clerical celibacy and believed priests should not
hold government positions as such temporal matters would likely interfere
with their spiritual mission. History
At first, although Lollardy was denounced as a heresy, Wycliffe and the
Lollards were sheltered by John of Gaunt and other anti-clerical nobility, who
may have wanted to use Lollard-advocated clerical reform to acquire new sources
of revenue from England’s monasteries. The University of Oxford also protected
Wycliffe and similar academics on the grounds of academic freedom and,
initially, allowed such persons to retain their positions despite their
controversial views. Lollards first faced serious persecution after the
Peasants' Revolt in 1381. While Wycliffe and other Lollards opposed the revolt,
one of the peasants’ leaders, John Ball, preached Lollardy. The royalty and
nobility then found Lollardy to be a threat not only to the Church, but to
English society in general. The Lollards' small measure of protection
evaporated. This change in status was also affected by the 1386 departure of
John of Gaunt who left England to pursue the Crown of Castile.
A group of gentry active during the reign of Richard II were known as
"Lollard Knights" either during or after their lives due to their acceptance of
Wycliffe's claims. Henry Knighton, in his Chronicle, identifies the principal
Lollard Knights as Thomas Latimer, John Trussel, Lewis Clifford, John Peachey,
Richard Storey, and Reginald Hilton. Thomas Walsingham's Chronicle adds
William Nevil and John Clanvowe to the list, and other potential members of
this circle have been identified by their wills, which contain
Lollard-inspired language about how their bodies are to be plainly buried
and permitted to return to the soil whence they came. There is little
indication that the Lollard Knights were specifically known as such during their
lifetimes; they were men of discretion, and unlike Sir John Oldcastle years
later, rarely gave any hint of open rebellion. However, they displayed a
remarkable ability to retain important positions without falling victim to the
various prosecutions of Wycliffe's followers occurring during their
lifetimes. Religious and secular authorities
strongly opposed Lollardy. A primary opponent was Thomas Arundel, Archbishop
of Canterbury, assisted by bishops like Henry le Despenser of Norwich, whom the
chronicler Thomas Walsingham praised for his zeal. King Henry IV passed the De
heretico comburendo in 1401, which did not specifically ban the Lollards, but
prohibited translating or owning the Bible and authorised burning heretics at
the stake. By the early 15th century, stern
measures were undertaken by Church and state which drove Lollardy underground.
One such measure was the 1410 burning at the stake of John Badby, a layman and
craftsman who refused to renounce his Lollardy. He was the first layman
executed in England for the crime of heresy.
Sir John Oldcastle, a close friend of King Henry V, was brought to trial in
1413 after evidence of his Lollard beliefs was uncovered. Oldcastle escaped
from the Tower of London and organized an insurrection, which included an
attempted kidnapping of the king. The rebellion failed, and Oldcastle was
executed. Oldcastle's revolt made Lollardy seem even more threatening to
the state, and persecution of Lollards became more severe. A variety of other
martyrs for the Lollard cause were executed during the next century,
including the Amersham Martyrs in the early 1500s and Thomas Harding in 1532,
one of the last Lollards to be made victim. A gruesome reminder of this
persecution is the 'Lollards Pit' in Thorpe Wood, now Thorpe Hamlet, Norwich,
Norfolk, where men are customablie burnt.
Lollards were effectively absorbed into Protestantism during the English
Reformation, in which Lollardy played a role. Since Lollards had been
underground for more than a hundred years, the extent of Lollardy and its
ideas at the time of the Reformation is uncertain and a point of debate.
Ancestors of Blanche Parry and of Lady Troy had Lollard connections. However,
many critics of the Reformation, including Thomas More, associated
Protestants with Lollards. Leaders of the English Reformation, including
Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, referred to Lollardy as well, and Bishop Cuthbert of
London called Lutheranism the "foster-child" of the Wycliffite heresy.
Scholars debate whether Protestants actually drew influence from Lollardy or
whether they referred to it to create a sense of tradition.
Despite the debate about the extent of Lollard influence there are ample
records of the persecution of Lollards from this period. In the Diocese of
London there are records of about 310 Lollards being prosecuted or forced to
abjure between 1510 and 1532. In Lincoln 45 cases against Lollardy were heard in
1506-1507 and in 1521 there were 50 abjurations and 5 burnings of Lollards.
In 1511 Archbishop Warham presided over the abjuration of 41 Lollards from Kent
and the burning of 5. The extent of Lollardy in the general
populace at this time is unknown, but the prevalence of Protestant iconoclasm
in England suggests Lollard ideas may still have had some popular influence if
Zwingli was not the source, as Lutherans did not advocate iconoclasm. Lollards
were persecuted again between 1554 and 1559 during the Revival of the Heresy
Acts, under the Catholic Queen Mary, which specifically suppressed heresy and
Lollardy. The similarity between Lollards and
later English Protestant groups such as the Baptists, Puritans, and Quakers also
suggests some continuation of Lollard ideas through the Reformation.
Representations in art and literature The Church used art as an anti-Lollard
weapon. Lollards were represented as foxes dressed as monks or priests
preaching to a flock of geese on misericords. These representations
alluded to the story of the preaching fox found in popular Medieval literature
such as The History of Reynard the Fox and The Shifts of Raynardine. The fox
lured the geese closer and closer with its words until it was able to snatch a
victim to devour. The moral of this story was that foolish people are
seduced by false doctrines. See also
Margery Baxter Ecclesiae Regimen
General Prologue of the Wycliffe Bible Jan Hus
William Langland Nicholas Love
Thomas Netter Piers Plowman
Piers Plowman tradition Waldensians
John Wycliffe References
Duffy, Eamon, The Stripping of the Altars, Yale University Press .
Hudson, Anne, "The Ideology of Reformation", The Premature Reformation:
Wycliffite Texts and Lollard History, Oxford: Clarendon Press .
Lowe, Ben, "Teaching in the 'Schole of Christ': Law, Learning, and Love in
Early Lollard Pacifism", Catholic Historical Review 90: 405–38 .
Lutton, Robert, Lollardy and Orthodox Religion in Pre-Reformation England,
Woodbridge and Suffolk, UK: Boydell and Brewer .
McFarlane, KB, The Origins of Religious Dissent in England .
Rex, Richard, The Lollards: Social History in Perspective, New York:
Palgrave . Richardson, Ruth Elizabeth, Mistresss
Blanche, Queen Elizabeth I's Confidante, Logaston Press .
———; Richardson, TG, Blanche Parry . Robson, John Adam. Wyclif and the Oxford
Schools: The Relation of the "Summa de Ente" to Scholastic Debates at Oxford in
the Later Fourteenth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
edit & trans. Shannon McSheffrey and Norman Tanner, ed.. "Lollards of
Coventry, 1486–1522". Royal Historical Society.
McSheffrey, Shannon. "Heresy, Orthodoxy and English Vernacular Religion
1480–1525". Past and Present 186. Notes
External links The Lollard Society — society dedicated
to providing a forum for the study of the Lollards
BBC radio 4 discussion from In Our Time. "John Wyclif and the Lollards".