In the Art of Rhetoric
Aristotle somewhat bridged the gap between the sophist and dialectic method.
As a student of Plato he was well versed in the use of the dialectic method
or rational argumentation.
But he did not share Plato’s dislike of rhetorica
and he wrote an extensive treatise on persuasive theory.
In which rational arguments definitely played an important, but not an exclusive part.
Aristotle focuses on the sender aspect of communication
and he uses a simple model to explain the different stages of sending out a message.
First of all, the topic of the message is determined.
This is the invention stage of communication.
Then the style of the message is determined.
Thirdly and finally the message will be delivered.
A politician might have a topic she wants to talk about.
She will then choose her words carefully,
what tone should she use?
And thirdly, she'll choose the manner of delivery,
she might choose to publish a pamphlet or give a speech.
Let’s say she gives a speech.
Now comes the stage of delivery:
she will use her stage performance,
her gestures and intonation,
to strengthen her message.
Successful communication, which leads to persuasion, has three building blocks:
Logos, Ethos, Pathos.
Logos is the use of reason. Basically it resembles what Socrates and Plato taught:
rational arguments based on facts and logic.
Our politician for instance might use some statistics to back up her argument.
Ethos is the ‘character’ or more precise the perceived trustworthiness,
likeability and intelligence of the sender.
Many persuasive arguments focus on personal traits like this.
Our politician might try to convince us that we should listen to her because
she is the expert on this field.
Without rational backing, this is a so-called authority argument.
Or she will tell her audience ‘when have I ever lied to you?’
thereby making it a trust issue and trying to increase her own credibility.
Or she will try to attack the trustworthiness of her opponents.
Or try to gain sympathy by hugging a child in front of an audience.
This has little to do with rational persuasion but might be very effective nevertheless.
Under pathos fall all other emotional appeals, that try to make the audience feel something.
For instance by appealing to fears, hopes, likes, dislikes or sense of humor.
Aristotle tells us to do this by using stories, examples and exaggeration.
Next to Aristotle the most noteworthy classical scholar whose writings survived the ages
was the Roman lawyer, senator, governor and consul Marcus Tullius Cicero.
Cicero whose speeches and treatises have been studied throughout the ages
by students of history and communication.
The same speeches that gained him so much power in the Roman Republic
and allies like Octavian, who later became the first Emperor of Rome.
They also gained him dangerous enemies, like the general Marc Anthony.
And in the end it was this enmity that caused his decapitation during the Roman civil war.
His powers of communication had been such a thorn in his enemies eyes,
that killing him wasn’t enough.
When his head was displayed in Rome,
they stuck needles in his tongue to punish it for all the harm it had done.
You can pick up recent translations of Cicero’s books,
like De Inventione, on the invention stage of communication,
De Oratore, about the delivery,
or the popular handbook Rhetorica ad Herennium in most book shops today.
And recognize that even though its written two millennia ago,
most of the theories are still applicable today.
An anecdote about Cicero for instance tells us that he would sometimes
purposely drop his papers while walking to the speeching area.
His audience then would feel sympathy because this “accident” could also happen to them.
He seemed more human and fallible and therefore more likeable to them.
It was little tricks like this, that made him such a good orator.
So rhetorical theory combined larger meta models on communication
with 'smaller' practical tips on how to achieve these goals,
how to seem right, or believable, nice, intelligent et cetera.
In short, there was a lively academic and widely practiced communication science
in the classical world.
As years went by and the Roman Empire collapsed in to the dark Middle Ages
these ideas all but disappeared to the cellars of monasteries, and libraries of Eastern scholars.
If they survived at all.