In one of the previous episodes we covered the arrival of the Bulgars to the Eastern
Roman empire's borders and their settling in the Balkans. Although the two cultures
started fighting almost immediately, the Bulgars played a crucial role in the defense of Constantinople
against the Umayyad Caliphate in 717-718. This was a battle that arguably changed the
history of Europe, but despite this, the alliance was short lived, and the Bulgars fought the
Byzantines in many battles afterwards. Welcome to the first episode in our series on the
Byzantine-Bulgarian wars and the battle of Pliska.
________________________________________ Khan Tervel’s effective intervention as
a Roman ally bestowed a level of international recognition on the Bulgar state, elevating
it to an acknowledged European power. This new political entity had a mixture of native
Bulgar traditions and Roman influence, a phenomenon which resulted in the presence of both an
elite nomadic warrior class and a long-standing bureaucratic structure capable of ruling sedentary
populations. Meanwhile, the Eastern Roman Empire was mostly
busy with fighting the existential threat of the caliphate, and employed a significant
portion of its manpower and material. Leo III restored his rule over Anatolia and enacted
many legal reforms. When Leo died in 741, he was succeeded by his son Constantine V,
who proved to be a brilliant military commander in short order. Taking advantage of civil
wars within the caliphate, the new emperor invaded Syria and reconquered Cyprus, resettling
their Christian populations in Thrace to strengthen imperial authority there.
His victories inspired fierce loyalty among the troops, and this allowed Constantine to,
amongst other things, create elite corps within the Eastern Roman army, known as tagmata.
These would function as a loyal, professional core of Constantinople’s military power,
serving as a counterweight to the thematic levies, which had a disturbing tendency to
revolt against central power. In 757 a truce was finally concluded between
the Roman emperor and the newly constituted Abbasid Caliphate. In addition to achieving
most of his wartime objectives, this peace also allowed Constantine to focus on the Balkans
and its Bulgar occupiers. This was an opportune moment to attack the
first Bulgarian empire, as its dynastic stability was shattered in 753 when the last ruling
member of the Dulos clan, Khan Sevar passed away. After this point, factional rivalries
began to undermine central Bulgar authority at the worst possible time. For the next 2
decades Constantine continuously fought against short-lived Bulgar khans in series of back
and forth campaigns . When this warrior-emperor finally perished from a fever in a campaign
against khan Telerig in 775, the period of existential danger to Bulgaria was, for now,
over. Constantine V was succeeded by Leo IV, and
the latter supported Telerig, who lost his throne in a coup led by Kardam. The emperor
allowed a marriage between Telerig and his own wife’s cousin; Telerig abandoned the
Tengriism of his ancestors and embraced Christianity, becoming absorbed into Greco-roman civilisation.
At this point, the balance of power between the empire and Bulgaria shifted again, as
Kardam began consolidating and building his strength. Meanwhile in the empire, Leo IV
died in 780, leaving the throne in the hands of his nine-year-old son Constantine VI and
his mother - Empress Irene. Under these rulers, internal strife within the empire led to difficulties
and purges of competent military officers who opposed Irene. Simultaneously, the Abbasid
Caliphate now once again took the offensive. Muslim raids into the empire culminated in
782, when Caliph Harun al-Rashid led 100,000 troops in a massive assault into Asia Minor,
which reached the suburbs of Constantinople itself.
These defeats and Irene’s status as a female basileus led to military unrest and a conspiracy
to depose her. In 802, a faction rallied around the Roman finance minister, Nikephoros, who
deposed and exiled Irene. The former then took the throne as Nikephoros I. Under his
new Nikephorian dynasty, the empire began a campaign to subjugate the various Slavic
Sclaveni in Western Thrace, Macedonia and Greece. This success both strengthened the
Romans militarily and financially, and more crucially, it prevented Kardam from doing
the same. At roughly the same time, Kardam passed away
and Bulgaria gained a talented new ruler named Krum in 803. How he became khan is not known
for certain, but upon his taking power Krum took decisive action by invading the disintegrating
Avar Khaganate. In this endeavor he advanced in conjunction with Charlemagne, King of the
Franks. The Avar remnant was destroyed relatively easily, and the surviving elements were subjugated
to client status, further increasing the khan’s power. This campaign of conquest extended
Bulgarian borders north to the Carpathian Mountains and Transylvania, doubling the state’s
territory and making it a truly formidable foe.
In 807, Nikephoros decided to lead a preemptive assault on the ascendant Bulgars, hoping to
forestall any intervention in his other consolidation efforts elsewhere. However, this campaign
barely got off the ground when it was terminated due to a thematic revolt against the emperor
- the crucial Anatolian strategoi were irritated that Nikephoros was ignoring the Abbasids,
who raided the region again during that year. While the emperor dealt with the rebellion,
Krum attacked. He received intelligence that a 12,000 strong mixed thematic force had amassed
in order to receive its pay, and would be vulnerable while it did so. In early 809,
the Bulgars marched through secret mountain passes and managed to scatter the Roman force
encamped in the Struma Valley, seizing 1,100 pounds of gold.
This was not the end of Nikephoros’ problems. In order to block imperial expansion northwest,
Krum undermined and forced the surrender of Serdika during March 809. Once the city gates
were opened however, the khan’s forces massacred the 6,000 strong garrison and a massive number
of civilians. At about this time, Harun al-Rashid passed
away and a civil war broke out between his sons. This good news relieved pressure on
imperial borders and allowed Nikephoros to fully concentrate on the Bulgar problem.
After a series of census and tax reforms, forced population transfers from Anatolia
to Greece, Thrace and the Struma valley were carried out, colonising these underpopulated
areas with Orthodox Greek-speakers. The new settlements were given military status, allowing
the creation of three new themes - Peloponnesos, Cephalonia and Thessaloniki. In total, the
Eastern Roman Empire could now call on 14,000 troops from its Balkan themes.
Because of this, Nikephoros felt confident by early 811 that he could decisively deal
with the Bulgars, destroy their state and recover lost imperial land in the process.
So, throughout March and April, Nikephoros began assembling the largest imperial force
in the Balkans since the good old days of Constantine V.
All four of the elite tagmatic heavy cavalry units were assembled, including the Excubitors
and Arithmos. They were the core shock force of the invading army, the bulk of which was
made up primarily of Thracian theme troops, but also contained some smaller contingents
from Anatolia, totaling around 25,000 to 30,000 soldiers. When the great host was finally
assembled, the emperor set out from his capital in May of 811, marching north for the frontier
fortress of Markellai, where the different army units would converge.
Word of the sheer size and majesty of the imperial formations reached Krum, who was
unnerved by its size and began negotiations. An embassy was sent to Nikephoros to reach
peace terms but, with the emperor and his advisors arrogantly certain of final victory,
these overtures were dismissed out of hand. After spending June and early July launching
deft feints and diversionary attacks to clear the garrisoned mountain passes, the main Roman
assault began on July 11th 811. Their objective was clear: Krum’s capital at Pliska, and
the conflict began as a walkover. News of Nikephoros’ approach through the mountains
caused panic in the civilian population, who began to flee into the countryside or hills
nearby. Krum led his own forces into the mountains as well to avoid being utterly destroyed.
However, he left 12,000 soldiers to garrison the capital, but they were slaughtered to
a man when the Romans arrived and stormed the city.
Once the city had been thoroughly looted, Nikephoros ordered that the surrounding countryside
be ravaged. Crops and animals were either taken or destroyed, and atrocities against
Bulgar civilians were widespread. Khan Krum, who was still held up in the mountains awaiting
reinforcement, could do nothing to help his people. He frantically sent another envoy,
offering the emperor safe passage if only he would just take all plunder he wished and
go home. Nikephoros, who was eager to destroy Bulgaria completely, ignored Krum’s pleas
for peace. On July 21st, the Romans broke camp and marched
toward Serdika, hoping to reassert control over the Sofia Basin. During this southwestward
march, hubris and lack of discipline began to plague the army. Progress was leisurely
due to the emperor’s overconfidence, and days spent freely looting with no immediate
danger had sapped the soldiers’ martial spirit. As the army moved toward the mountains,
cohesion began to suffer, with increasing numbers of men breaking ranks to plunder or
just desert and return home. Seeing this, Nikephoros’ officers became worried and
urged the emperor to return to imperial territory, but they were ignored.
The lengthy sack of Pliska and subsequent slow imperial march gave Krum the time he
needed. His troops were rallied and additional Bulgars were levied to fill the army, including
women. In a flurry of activity which contrasted totally with his enemy, Krum ordered scouts
to constantly follow the imperial army, keeping him informed of the Roman marching path at
every turn. Moreover, the crucial Moesian Slavic and Avar reinforcements arrived, joining
the khan’s army. Although these additional troops made a much-needed impact on the morale
of his soldiers, Krum realised his army still could not defeat the Romans in open battle.
His only hope for revenge would be to catch them in the mountain passes.
By July 24th it was clear that this was happening - the loosely formed imperial column was unmistakably
marching south toward the Gerlovo Basin and the Varbitsa Pass beyond it - 30 miles southwest
of Pliska. The stage was set for a decisive counterattack.
As advanced imperial units marched into the narrow pass they saw a fortified log palisade
blocking their path, which Nikephoros dismissed as a means to prevent entry, rather than deny
exit. To make the situation worse, Bulgar warriors were spotted on the heights surrounding
them, information which was reported to Nikophoros’ headquarters. Realising something had to be
done, the emperor ordered a halt to discuss courses of action with his commanders.
The emperor’s son Stavrakios acted as a spokesman for the commanders, and he recommended
an urgent retreat to Markellai, foreseeing a trap. It is reported that Nikephoros became
so angry with this constant desire to retreat that the two men almost came to blows. Such
bickering amongst the imperial command continued for days, all the while Krum’s preparations
were completed, the Romans lost more soldiers to desertion, and troop morale plummeted.
By the 25th it was clear to Nikephoros his army was in a lethal situation, but it was
far too late to avert it. Roman inactivity allowed the Bulgars to scout their enemy’s
deployment in detail. What they found was promising indeed. Krum learned that, rather
than resting in one fortified encampment, the imperial army was strung out in a series
of smaller camps, each theme detachment having its own. They stretched all the way from the
narrow defile through the Preslav mountains in the north, to the Kamchiya River in the
south. Nikephoros’ camp, housing courtiers, commanders and the elite tagmatic units, was
identifiable by its size and the glittering colours of its tents and banners.
As the Roman troops idly milled about the basin, drinking and playing games to pass
the time, Krum’s eager forces were closing in, getting ready for the fight. By late friday
evening, the preparations had been completed. The Bulgar light infantry was stationed on
the heights on either side of the road leading through Vurbitsa Pass, and also on the mountain
slopes facing the road from the east. Additional ambushing troops were placed on the southern
slopes of the Preslav mountains to the north. To the west of the Roman encampment chain
was Krum’s cavalry and the majority of his infantry, forming the main strike force, which
was hidden behind a hill in the western part of the basin.
In the early dawn hours of June 26th, sentinels guarding Nikephoros’ camp began hearing
unnerving wails from the mountains, which gradually increased in intensity as the hours
went by. Thousands of Bulgar men and women were clattering their equipment together and
shouting war cries in order to frighten the enemy. Now half-awake, the elite tagmatic
troops in the emperor’s camp began to form up, putting on their armour and hastily grabbing
their weapons. It was not quick enough. Before the tagmata could form up, the flower
of Nikephoros’ army was suddenly struck from the early morning darkness by a mass
of Bulgar, Slav and Avar warriors from Krum’s main assault force from at least two directions
- north and west. The plan was simple - destroy the elite formations and their commanders.
In the early minutes of the fighting, Krum’s plan worked wonders. During the vicious, disorganised
melee, the overconfident Nikephoros, many of his subcommanders and elite troops were
killed. The survivors, including the late emperor’s mortally wounded son, fled toward
the Vurbitsa pass, desperate to escape. The assorted thematic contingents had been woken
up, as planned, by the racket coming from the mountainside, and began forming up for
battle. It was no good. The sight of the revered tagmata fleeing in terror and confusion broke
their morale, and they too began to rout south. As they did so, increasing numbers of Bulgar
ambushing troops descended from the heights and joined Krum’s strike force in pursuit.
This major defeat turned into a catastrophe during the imperial army’s flight from Krum’s
forces. Relentlessly showered by arrow fire from the heights, and relentlessly chased
by the Bulgar army, Roman soldiers were bogged in the mire surrounding the Kamchiya river,
where many soldiers drowned. Those who made it through were trapped against the palisade
constructed by their enemy at the end of the pass.
Only a small number of Roman troops survived the Battle of Pliska. Nikephoros’ body was
also found - his severed head was cleaned out, lined with silver and then used as a
drinking cup for years after by the victorious Krum. The Bulgars now wished to march into
the Byzantine territory, which means that our series will continue, so make sure you
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