We have seen China suffer devastating rebellions such as the Taiping rebellion.
The country suffered a humiliating defeat after the Sino-Japanese war and the Boxer
Rebellion saw China suffer massive losses at the hands of eight different nations.
But yet....
The Qing dynasty was still standing after all that had happened.
The Qing embarked on a period of institutional and social reforms..
These reforms, however, were an exemplary case of too little, too late and the once
mighty Qing dynasty would survive for just little under a decade...
-intro-
The Japanese example
Following the Chinese defeat after the Boxer rebellion, the Imperial Qing court was convinced
a new approach was required for its reign to continue.
This conviction bore a bit of resemblance with the attitude after China got defeated
during the second opium war in eighteen-sixty.
As a result during this period, until nineteen-eleven, many reforms proposed in eighteen-ninety-eight
were now realized.
Ironically, Empress dowager Cixi and her conservative allies launched a coup against these reformers
under the Kuang-hsu emperor in 1898 and deposed of them.
The irony is hopefully not lost on many.
These reforms would be implemented, though it would not be enough to save the Qing Dynasty.
Consider it political quicksand: the more the dynasty attempted to save itself, the
deeper it sank.
During the Boxer Rebellion several governor-generals of provinces remained neutral towards both
foreign powers, Boxers and Qing dynasty.
Among these were Chang Chih-tung and Liu-K’un-i, two of the most famous officials during that
time.
These men now presented three joint memorials to Empress Dowager Cixi in which they outlined
a program that was reminiscent of the 100 days’ reform.
With several understatements apparent in the texts, they still managed to point out the
dire situation the Qing dynasty found itself in and convinced Cixi of the necessity of
reform.
Now, China’s example when it came to modernisation was its island neighbour, Japan.
Reason for this was that the island seemed to have discovered the answer to Western aggression
and encroachment.
During the Sino-Japanese war it already showcased its superiority in military tactics and equipment.
The years after, Japan agreed to treaties with Western powers that weren’t on unequal
footing like the other Asian powers had been forced to sign.
One of the most telling was the 1902 Anglo-Japanese alliance.
Japan could take a tougher stance against Russia, with whom it had tense relations due
to the Russians not only withholding Port Arthur from the Japanese after the Sino-Japanese
war, but occupying the Liaodong peninsula themselves several years later.
And, if you remember the video about the geopolitics preceding the Sino-Japanese war, both countries
were still dead-set on gaining influence in Korea and Manchuria.
Russian troops in Manchuria eventually led to the Russo-Japanese war, if you’re interested
in a more detailed background, I’ve made two videos about that.
Japan defeated Russia, and the war saw the largest battle in the world to date.
Japan's victory impressed all Asian nations, as it was the first time in modern times a
Western power was defeated by an Asian one.
In China especially, Japan became even more of an example for reforms after 1905.
At the top of the long list of reforms proposed to Empress Dowager Cixi, was the reform of
education in order to create a new, competent elite.
Abolishing the exam system
Immediately after 1900 the government embarked on a thorough reform of education.
It adhered to the traditional Chinese notion that recruiting talent is the most important
element to realise good government.
What’s interesting is that the Japanese educational system became the blueprint and
China attempted to attract Japanese teachers.
Back in 1898 a modern imperial university was established in Beijing (the Beida).
The Qing government invested heavily in erecting modern schools, although at its core the system
remained weak.
These modern schools, it was thought, would supplant the traditional examination system
in a decade.
The traditional system could not be abolished immediately, due to the scholar-officials
with vested interest in it.
After all, they enjoyed a natural dominance in both urban and rural areas due to exactly
that system.
The goal of the modern schools was not to educate the Chinese masses nor liberal education
of the individual, it was to train and select officials more effectively.
One of the first steps to modernity was the abolition of the traditional eight-legged
essay.
It had existed for nearly 5 centuries by that point.
Unfortunately, the traditional route of education remained cheaper than the costly new modern
schooling.
Officials shunned the new government schools and to top it all off, the new schools faced
tough competition from Western missionary schools established in strategic treaty ports
and cities.
Private enterprises also spurred up, a perfect example are Chang Po-ling and Yen Hsiu, who
opened a middle school in Tientsin, acquiring a campus over the years, eventually growing
into the Nankai University.
Right, so I mentioned that Japan was an example to China when it came to modernisation.
Well, Chang Chih-tung sent two missions to Japan in order to study its educational system
and import its textbooks.
Japanese professors were imported to China as well, and Chang started to see Japan as
a more favoured training ground for teachers as opposed to Europe, it was cheaper, there
obviously was a similar cultural element, and many Western books had already been translated
to Japanese.
After Japan won the Russo-Japanese war, the Chinese program for educational modernisation
accelerated and the state exam system was formally abolished that same year.
This event cannot be emphasized enough: it basically tore away the fundamental confucianist
basis China was built on.
Traditional education made way for a mixed Sino-Western curriculum.
Western works were translated to Chinese by, among others, Lin Shu and Yen Fu.
The latter concluded that the secret to Western power was in Western thought.
He translated Huxley, Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill, Montesquieu and many others.
It truly was a massive shift in Chinese thought and education.
Institutional and Military Reform
Before 1905 several important reforms had already been issued.
First of all, the central governmental apparatus was modernized: the ancient six-ministry organ
was supplemented with several other ministries, such as education, foreign affairs, trade,
police and industry.
Attempts to adequately manage government funds met with much resistance from those that were
personally benefited from the traditional tax system (1.398).
The Qing government faced much resistance from the provincial authorities as well, as
these felt their autonomy was directly threatened by the centralization of power.
A more modest attempt was made to reform Chinese law.
This reform was absolutely necessary if the Western powers would ever want to cede their
extraterritorial rights.
The modernisation of the army was rather successful.
Many civil servants tasked with raising troops used Japanese knowledge, experience and officers
while Chinese officers such as no other than Chiang Kai-shek traveled to Japan in 1907
to receive advanced military education.
Now, the following is an interesting story: by 1901 there were three main types of military
organization.
The traditional Manchu banner forces, together with the decentralized Chinese constabulary
(the army of the Green Standard).
These were… pretty much useless and backward, compared to modern military forces.
Archery, sword-brandishing and lifting a heavy stone were criteria to be selected as a soldier.
You can imagine that these ancient rituals were of no use against a modern force.
The second military force in China were regional armies under control by Chinese civil officials.
Examples are the Hunan army, built up by Tseng Kuo-fan during the Taiping rebellion.
While it had been formally disbanded, together with Li Hung-chang’s Anhwei Army, these
forces continued to exist.
The soldiers were regionally recruited and weren’t part-time farmer soldiers, but professional
fighters, also referred to as ‘braves’.
The umbrella term for these forces, and I’ve named two but there were several more, was
the Defense Army.
There was rivalry among these forces and they lacked standardized armament, though they
had more modern western weaponry as compared to the manchu banners.
And then there was the military organization that was created in response to Japanese aggression.
In the 1880s Li Hongzhang and Chang Chih-tung set up military academies and hired German
officers to train their new Chinese force.
While Chang created an army based on the German model in Nanking, the unit developed under
Yuan Shih-k’ai was more significant.
We met him in Korea around twenty years ago, as Li’s pro-consul, but he now laid the
basis of the so-called ‘Peiyang clique’ and became the father of the warlords.
That’s no understatement, among his early officers at least ten of them would become
military governors after the Xinhai revolution and five became presidents or premiers of
the Beijing government under the republic.
His army was the most disciplined, modernized, and best paid.
After Li Hung-chang and Liu K’un-i died in 1901 and 1902 respectively, Yuan Shih Kai
was the chief army builder.
As you can imagine, we will hear much more from Yuan at a later stage.(1.395-398).
Economic and social changes
After the Boxer rebellion, the early stages of a modern economy became visible.
During the peace of Shimonoseki in 1895 Japan enforced their right to establish factories
at treaty ports.
Thanks to the most-favoured-nations clause, other countries could now establish their
own factories in these areas as well.
Foreign industrial activities, using cheap Chinese labour, stimulated Chinese competition.
After 1900 this growth expanded, though still modest, from the treaty ports to Chinese companies
more inland.
Everywhere in China chambers of commerce were established and once the ministry of trade
and industry was created, this economical development was stimulated even more.
During the last decade the Qing dynasty was in power the cleavage between the gentry and
merchants and industrialists started to fade.
The gentry started to focus on trading and industrial endeavours, which was indirectly
stimulated by the abolishing of the state exam system.
Meanwhile, the loyalty towards the Qing dynasty started to weaken even more, as more Chinese
gentry, but other classes as well, started to prioritize their own regional economic
fortunes over dynastic stability.
Preparing a constitution
The Qing government attempted to solidify the support they enjoyed, and during this
process, it became very clear the loyalty of its citizens had been worn down.
After Japan defeated Russia in 1905, constitutionalism seemed to be the type of government that provided
the basis for unity between rulers and ruled.
This notion was underpinned not just due to Japan’s constitutionalism.
Npw Russia, as a result of losing the war, made plans to move towards a parliamentary
government via the Duma themselves.
I have detailed Russia’s first parliament and constitution in a separate video, if that
interests you.
The Qing issued representative bodies for which Japan, once again, served as the blueprint.
Empress-dowager Cixi announced in 1908 the incremental introduction of a constitution
and parliament.
The transition period would be 9 years (just like in Japan, where a parliament was promised
in 1880, and it finally met in 1889).
The first step would be the implementation of a provincial assembly in 1909.
Whereas Chang Chih-tung sent two delegations to Japan to study the education system, the
Qing court sent two delegations to Europe and the United States, and one to Japan.
The delegates met with Prince Ito, the President of the advisory council to the emperor.
Ito emphasized the importance of an emperor maintaining supreme power, standing ‘above
the population’ if you will, while promoting crucial elements such as public debate.
But, rather important and game-changing, that same year in 1908 Empress dowager Cixi passed
away.
But there was an emperor she dethroned during the conservative coup 10 years earlier, right?
Emperor Kuang-hsu, who was only 37 and didn’t suffer from health problems.
Well… he died under… mysterious circumstances exactly one day before Cixi passed away.
Cixi had, in fact, appointed the 3 year old Puyi as her successor.
Prince Chun, Puyi’s father, became the prince-regent.
Prince Chun barely managed to influence Chinese policy, and the de-facto strongest man of
the country was general Yuan Shih-kai.
While Yuan offered his services to the emperor, Prince Chun feared Yuan’s influence, dismissing
him.
Yuan complied, though bitterly offended.
Dismissing Yuan would have far-reaching consequences for the Qing dynasty.
Chang Chi-tung died in October that same year.
Alright, so the Qing dynasty faced another problem when it came to administrative functions.
The central administration was reorganized under the aforementioned 11 ministries, but
the Qing did not want to create an agency to control and coordinate these ministries.
Simply put: the person at its head would assume too much power.
The representatives of all 16 new provincial assemblies, however, did meet, and its delegates
turned out to be rather unruly and difficult to control.
Regional interests trumped national interests and the delegates demanded to speed up the
establishment of the constitution and parliament.
In turn, parliamentary representation was promised by the regent, Prince Chun, to be
realised by 1913 instead of 1917.
In 1911 the first minister cabinet was established by Prince Chun, though it didn’t really
work in favour for the dynasty.
Fairbank and Reischauer write that “with incredible ineptitude he appointed eight Manchus,
one Mongol bannerman, and only four Chinese”!
It was one of the last twitches of the dying dynasty.
The Railway Controversy
Provincial versus central interests came to a climax over railway-building.
Western powers had managed to acquire rights to establish and control their own railways.
As these railways were considered the tools of economic imperialism, the local Chinese
gentry and merchants started to gather their own funds to establish their railways.
This patriotic “rights recovery” movement did so in two ways: they either bought foreign
railway companies if possible, and secondly they funded the actual building of Chinese
railroads.
The Qing government feared that these local initiatives to establish railways would further
weaken the dynasty.
And, just as important, the dynasty itself did not have enough funds to start working
on a national railroad.
The funds that it did have were managed by corrupt officials.
All these reasons led to the decision to nationalize the railroads in 1910.
Funds, once again, proved the biggest obstacle.
Under Sheng Hsuan-huai centralization of railways had, in part, already taken place, and he
now agreed to a loan from a group of foreign bankers, the so-called Consortium.
The final contract by the consortium coincided with an imperial decree, advocated by Sheng,
which nationalized and bought out all local railroads, bringing them under Beijings supervision.
A wave of protests erupted, and if you ponder on this act for a little, I’d imagine you
too come to the conclusion that in essence it seemed that Sheng, and by extension the
Qing, were selling China to foreign bankers.
In order to prevent this nationalization of railways, riots erupted in Szechuan in 1911,
which quickly spiralled out of control.
This time the gentry took a leading role in the rebellion.
The fatal blow the Qing government received was an unexpected and unplanned military riot
in Wu-chang on the 11th of october 1911.
This riot spread at such a fast pace, that all the Qing court could do, was call upon
Yuan Shih-k’ai.
Today has been all about the failed reforms the Qing issued the decade after the Boxer
rebellion.
These reforms were too little, too late.
Next week we’ll look at the Wuchang rebellion which was the beginning of the Xinhai rebellion.
The End of Empire and abdication of Puyi, the last emperor, would follow shortly after.
After a poor attempt at dictatorship by Yuan Shikai, the Chinese Warlord Era begun, a time
when the peripheral areas were divided among a number of competing warlords.
If that sounds interesting, consider subscribing to my channel and checking back next week.
Thank you for watching this video and what is a person or event from Chinese history
you would like to know more about, and perhaps see a video of?
Let me know your thoughts in a comment!
See you next time.