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One of the most popular inquiries I read about Egyptian pyramids
is the question of why they evolve to increase and then decrease in size.
The seemingly bizarre arrangement of having the largest pyramids built first is worthy
of consideration, and I thought it would be fun to share some thoughts about their evolution.
Despite the abyss of time that separates us from the era of pyramid construction, you can expect
that humans from the past were motivated by a consistent logic that can be inferred
when looking at how the monuments evolved. We are fortunate that archaeology of the past
century has given us a pretty good understanding of which pyramid belonged to which pharaoh,
and the general order that they were built in. This isn’t to say that the sequence is perfect
or will never be updated, but the overall picture is much clearer than it was in the last century.
The pyramids of Giza were so prominent that history never forgot who built them,
but many of the later monuments withered away out of sight and memory.
The story of pyramids begins with the stepped pyramid of Djoser, the first king of the 3rd
dynasty. Amazingly, Djoser’s pyramid complex is perhaps the most elaborate ever constructed.
Is has the simulacra of a small city beside it, surrounded by a stunningly beautiful and massive
enclosure wall. Beneath the structure is a network of tunnels that span over 6 kilometers in length,
leading to many chambers of various designs. The whole complex has many unique
and unusual features, but we’re going to focus on just a few key points.
The first thing to mention, is that this complex was absolutely used for burials.
There are sarcophagi and burial goods throughout the underground structure,
and some helpful inscriptions to provide a little bit of context.
The superstructure of the pyramid itself was actually built in at least 6 stages. The
deterioration of the outer layers has made it possible to inspect the inner structure
enough to see each construction phase. This monument started as a square mastaba
63 meters in length and 8.5 meters tall, was then enlarged to 71.5 meters on the sides,
then elongated on one side to form a rectangle of about 80 by 71.5 meters.
This third mastaba stage was almost certainly made to cover 11 burial shafts on the eastern side.
Next the mastaba was transformed into a primordial pyramid. The side lengths
increased by another 6 meters and it was stacked up to 4 layers and a height of 42 meters.
The next enlargement added two additional layers on top. This increased the base to 108 by 120
meters, with a total height of about 60 meters. Finally, the 6-stepped pyramid was cased
with polished limestone using blocks slightly larger than those that made up the interior.
If anything can be inferred by this construction sequence, it’s that it
was not all planned from the beginning and there was some improvisation going on.
Based upon these separate building phases, we can safely assume other parts of the pyramid
complex were completed before the pyramid itself was finished. The entire arrangement
must have been extremely impressive even in its early stages, as nothing comparable had
ever been constructed before. Prior to Djoser’s reign in the
Early Dynastic period, there is a lack of evidence for any strong central government.
The development of civilization is dependent on a government’s ability to organize society under a
system of laws and standards. If a society’s laws or leadership are in dispute, then every conflict
lends itself towards violence and disorder. Djoser’s elaborate pyramid complex was undoubtedly
impressive at its onset, as large-scale construction in stone had not yet been
achieved. This probably had a unifying effect upon society, as the natural power
or hegemony of Djoser was communicated by his ability to build on a larger-than-life scale.
There can be little doubt that Djoser and the ancient Egyptians noticed this effect,
because the six stages of construction for the stepped pyramid reflect a continuing
desire to project power on a larger scale. It’s important to distinguish this tangible effort
towards stature as separate from the religious beliefs of the Egyptians
relating to the afterlife. After all, if a mastaba is perfectly adequate for eternal life,
why bother with an enormous pyramid? As the stepped pyramid was originally
designed to be a mastaba, clearly Djoser started with this mindset as well.
But the effect of transmitting a monarch’s power through architecture must have been alluring,
as the development of the stepped Pyramid complex continued to evolve.
If I were to put forth a reason why the mastaba was eventually stacked into a pyramid,
it would be that you couldn’t see the mastaba very well after tall the enclosure walls were built.
Thus, building towards the sky was probably done for the sake of visibility.
The unique geography of Egypt gives a huge return on investment for building tall
structures. Entirely dependent upon the Nile River for resources and transportation, every
individual passing between Lower and Upper Egypt would see a tall shining pyramid. So prominent
would a pyramid be on the horizon, nobody could ever forget for a moment who was in charge.
Constructing a large pyramid thus had very tangible results for a living pharaoh,
and this motivation would be sufficient regardless of any spiritual purpose for the afterlife.
Thus, pyramids quickly got taller and more glamorous so the power of the monarchy was
enshrined for eternity. The culmination of this was the Great Pyramid of Giza, never surpassed in
size, precision or complexity. So why then, after Khufu,
did the pyramids quickly shrink to a lesser height than Djoser’s first stepped pyramid?
I would speculate that after a few enormous pyramids, the return on
investment for making them so large began to diminish. Attempting to construct a pyramid
larger than the Great Pyramid of Giza was probably seen as a poor risk versus reward scenario.
So how does a pharaoh compensate for building a lesser monument than his predecessor? By adding
cosmetic enhancements, of course. After Khufu, Djedefre builds on the highest ground he can find
in Abu Rawash so that his pyramid is more visible even though it’s a fraction of the size.
Khafre follows up with a more practical spot on the Giza plateau. But he still builds on taller
ground than Khufu, and at a steeper slope to create a more striking visual presentation.
Even today, it’s incredibly common to see it inaccurately labeled as
the Great Pyramid because of this illusion. Next comes Menkaure, who builds much smaller,
but opts for an entirely red–colored pyramid cased in Aswan granite and painted limestone.
If every other pyramid is white, then being the only red monument would really stand
out. Djedefre also used a lot of granite for his casing, but the amount is lost to time
because the pyramid has been entirely quarried. As the 4th dynasty progressed and the pyramids
shrank in size, another noticeable trend emerged. The temples related to the pyramids,
both on their eastern sides and in the Nile Valley rapidly grew in size and grandeur.
Enormous columns of granite were erected along with lavish courtyards and spacious interiors.
Some of the finest statues ever discovered in Egypt have been found among their ruins.
From the perspective of a pharaoh thinking about how he’ll be judged compared to his predecessors,
this makes total sense. On a day-to-day basis, you’re not thinking about the hidden spaces within
a pyramid. You’re looking at all the worship and spectacle that is occurring at the temples
and wondering how you can do better. Undoubtedly, the pharaoh would have been
encouraged by other elite families in Egyptian society, because working as a cult worshipper
was probably one of the cushiest jobs available at the time. Bigger temples require bigger cults,
and privileged priests were responsible for managing and delivering offerings brought there
by the public. I’m going to take a wild guess that it wasn’t the deceased pharaohs who were imbibing
all the real beer brought to these temples for hundreds of years. Not to mention the
daily animal sacrifices, and what hungry priest would let all that good meat go to waste?
It also became common for pharaohs to exempt the temples of previous kings from taxation,
which probably elevated the lifestyles of those working there even further.
These incentives all align to form a blueprint for how every king in the following 5th and
6th dynasties would prioritize the construction of their monuments.
Pyramids of a more practical size are erected quickly and with improved efficiency.
Their fill no longer needs to be solid blocks cut to size
because the chambers are built entirely below the superstructure.
The speed and urgency at which pyramids were erected is made clear by the fact
that pharaohs with short reigns had no trouble completing them. King Merenre
ruled for perhaps less than 10 years, followed by King Pepi II who ruled for more than 60 years,
yet their pyramids are almost exactly the same. When studying the interiors of completed pyramids,
however, a revealing pattern emerges. Many of the final touches in pyramid chambers
are rushed or incomplete, no matter how long or short a pharaoh’s reign was.
Walls go unpolished, pavement is rough or irregular,
hieroglyphics go unpainted, and even the sarcophagus is sometimes left un-squared.
The priority of the pyramid is thus made clear. You build quickly and efficiently
to establish your legitimacy as a monarch, and the business of taking care of your funerary
arrangements can be procrastinated. This point is extremely important,
and it’s one that countless books about pyramids and Egyptology seem to miss.
It’s true that from their inception, pyramids were closely tied to the burial of a king.
But this doesn’t mean that their purpose was a simple mastaba upgrade. In fact,
some of their functionality was completely opposite – as a mastaba was designed to disguise
the entrance to a burial whereas Old Kingdom pyramids advertised their entrance locations.
Pyramids projected power and authority for a living pharaoh,
and once established the kings quickly turned their attention to other things.
The 5th dynasty rulers decided that a mortuary temple and a valley temple were insufficient,
so they added enormous Sun Temples to further celebrate their living accomplishments.
But the good times never last forever. After Pepi II, the 6th dynasty ended and the central
government of Egypt collapsed. These times of turmoil, known as the First Intermediate Period,
lasted for over a century. It wasn’t until the 12th dynasty that society
was organized enough to build pyramids again. And then of course what happens? They get big again!
How interesting that all of these pharaohs felt the need to upsize the visibility of the monarchy
after a period of unrest and chaos. But even though the pyramids were upsized,
priority was still given to low-cost materials and construction speed. Now,
with their casing stones plundered, the mud-brick cores are exposed and eroded away.
The interior chambers of these pyramids no longer retained a standard design
with a northern entrance. They were instead concealed with novel methods for hiding
the access point. This is evidence that during the First Intermediate Period, all
of the Old Kingdom Pyramids were plundered. I find it notable that these final large pyramids
built in the 12th dynasty are not as clustered together as they were in the Old Kingdom. Keeping
royal burials in one location makes them much easier to defend, and that strategy culminates
centuries later, in the Valley of the Kings. The last large pyramid builder, Amenemhat III,
is credited with two pyramids built in entirely different locations. It would seem that building
pyramids for the sake of projecting power was a strategy used until the very end.
When taking a step back and examining the big picture, I see that tomb security was
a secondary priority for pyramid construction. The concerns of the pharaohs for their time among
the living always seems to outweigh their needs for the afterlife.
Perhaps by uncoupling pyramids from their tombs within, the patterns and decisions made by the
ancient Egyptians will appear more logical. It’s still entirely possible that the first
pyramid containing a king’s burial wasn’t Djoser or even Snefru, and that tombs and
pyramids evolved together out of convenience rather than a coherent plan for eternal life.
Because of the cranks that say pyramids were power stations or other nonsense,
Egyptology reflexively combines the pyramid and the tomb as a single concept. But the
long arc of history points to a more complex relationship between the needs of the here and now
and any plans for an eternal future. Thanks to everyone who watched this video to
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