While humans have hypothesized the existence of Antarctica at least as far back as the
ancient Greeks, the first time we laid eyes on the Antarctic mainland wasn't until 1820,
though James Cook is thought to have come within about 150 miles of it in 1773.
No one knows for certain who spotted the continent first as the sightings all occurred within
a very short period of each other, but it's generally accepted that the three expeditions
that "first" spotted the main land were led by Captain Edward Bransfield of the Royal
Navy, American sealer Nathanial Palmer, and Captain Fabian Gottlieb von Bellinghausen
of the Russian Imperial Navy.
Whoever was really first, exploration of Antarctica tapered off during the middle of the 19th
century only to experience a resurgence in what is known as the Heroic Age of Arctic
Exploration which resulted in Norwegian Roald Amundsen leading the first successful group
to reach the South Pole on December 14, 1911.
Territorial claims on the land began as early as 1908 with seven countries making claims
between then and 1943.
Those countries were Argentina, Chile, Australia, the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Norway, and
France.
Claiming territory might not be a big deal when countries recognize each other’s claims,
but as the many wars humans have fought over the centuries attest, it can be problematic
when those claims overlap.
That was the case for Chile, Argentina, and Great Britain.
When Britain proposed the three countries argue their cases with the International Court
of Justice in both 1947 and 1955, Argentina and Chile refused.
It was then suggested that those with an interest in the continent put aside their differences
and have joint control over the continent.
Other proposals brought before the countries of the United Nations tried to create an international
agreement for governing Antarctica and even create a UN trusteeship.
But they all failed to gain traction.
It was the International Geophysical Year (IGY) that provided the impetus for international
cooperation in Antarctica.
The IGY spanned eighteen months starting in 1957 where twelve countries carried out major
scientific research on Antarctica.
These countries consisted of those seven with territory claims on the continent, along with
the United States, Soviet Union, Japan, Belgium, and South Africa.
The IGY was such a success that the United States invited the participating nations to
Washington, D.C. from October 15 to December 1, 1959.
This meeting- the Conference on Antarctica- concluded with the creation of the Antarctic
Treaty.
It went into effect in 1961 after being ratified by all twelve countries, perhaps somewhat
of a surprise given an era when the Soviet Union and the United States could rarely agree
on anything.
The Antarctic Treaty outlined protections for the continent and effectively halted tensions
over territorial claims.
While the treaty does not force any country to give up its right to territorial claims
or deny sovereignty over that land, it prevents member countries from asserting those claims
via any non-peaceful activities.
The preamble states: “… it is in the interest of all mankind that Antarctica shall continue
forever to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and shall not become the scene or
object of international discord.”
Article 1 drives home the requirement for peace by forbidding any military action, bases,
and weapons testing.
Article V even prohibits nuclear explosions and the disposal of nuclear material on the
continent, effectively eliminating nuclear testing or direct pollution in Antarctica.
The treaty also addresses the continuation of scientific research, stating “Freedom
of scientific investigation in Antarctica and cooperation toward that end … shall
continue…”
It goes a step further by requiring the signatory countries to inform the others when conducting
scientific studies and to freely share information.
In order to partially facilitate this and ensure everyone on the continent is actually
focused on science, the treaty allows each country to observe and inspect the facilities
and equipment of any of the others.
The Antarctic Treaty has since grown to include other agreements, collectively known as the
Antarctic Treaty System (ATS), and so has the number of members.
As of the writing of this script, there were fifty-four countries belonging to the ATS
with interests in scientific research in Antarctica.
Bonus Facts: • Ever wonder what time zone the poles are
in?
Well, wonder no more: Given that they are every possible hour all the time, or more
aptly technically in every time zone, it turns out that there are actually no official time
zones at the poles.
Nevertheless, groups working at or visiting the poles still have a need to keep track
of and coordinate time, so what do they use?
To begin with, some choose to synchronize their watches with the closest or last point
of civilization.
For example, the U.S. research center on Antarctica, McMurdo Station, uses the time zone of Christchurch,
New Zealand, as it is the last (or first) city most travelers to and from McMurdo pass
through and where they get most of their supplies from.
Other bases use the time zones of their home countries, while still others just go with
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), the successor to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), the latter of
which is no longer defined precisely but in a practical sense is somewhat interchangeable
with UTC.
• The name Antarctica comes from the Greek word “antarktike,” which literally means
“opposite to the north.”
The continent is, of course, home to the southernmost point on Earth.
John George Bartholomew, a Scottish cartographer, is believed to be the first person to use
"Antartica" to refer to the continent.
However, the name was used for a different place by the French before this.
In the 1500s, they held a colony in Brazil below the equator which they named France
Antartique.
Remarkably, a bird weighing only on average around 100 grams called the Arctic Tern manages
to make a migration spanning from the shores of Antarctica all the way to Greenland.
Tracked via 1.4 gram geolocators, scientists were able to determine the shortest migration
for the birds was an astounding 36,900 miles (60,000 km) while the longest was 50,700 miles
(81,000 km).
For perspective, the circumference of the Earth is 24,901 miles (40,075 km).
This makes them the record holder for longest migration of any bird.
This migration is completed annually at every life stage.
Given that the Arctic Tern can live as many as 35 years, a single Arctic tern can potentially
travel about 1.5 million miles (2.4 million km) in their lifetime.
That is equal to 3 trips to the Moon and back!
During its migration, the Arctic Tern completes a roundtrip from Greenland, traversing the
Weddell Sea and, as noted, even flying along the shores of Antarctica.
The birds take a break at sea over the North Atlantic Ocean while they fuel up on food
(being a seabird, they eat mainly fish and marine invertebrates).
Once this break is completed, the birds head down the coast of northwest Africa, around
the Cape Verde Islands, then off the west coast of Africa towards Senegal.
At this point in their travels, something very odd occurs.
Rather than following the same path, only around half of the migrating birds will continue
the path along the coast of Africa.
The remaining birds actually cross the Atlantic Ocean and go down the coast of South America.
The reason behind this isn't fully understood; but whatever the case, both sets of birds
complete their trips successfully.
The return trip also has an interesting twist.
Rather than traveling straight back along the path they came, the Terns instead travel
in a twisted 'S' shaped pattern through the Atlantic Ocean.
Though this route adds many miles to their trip, it has a purpose.
The birds are taking advantage of the global wind system.
So although they're taking a meandering path, they actually use less energy thanks to the
wind currents.