In the year 732, a vast Muslim army swept across Spain and into France, threatening
to overrun the Christian kingdoms of Europe.
Led by the legendary commander Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, this force sought to spread the
faith of Islam and expand the Islamic empire into the heart of the continent.
Standing in their way was a Frankish army under the command of a certain Charles.
The stage was set for a titanic struggle that would determine the fate of Europe, and shape
the course of world history for centuries to come.
[Background]
In the turbulent 8th century, Europe was a divided land, torn apart by the rivalries
of petty dukes and warring kingdoms.
Since the fall of the mighty Roman Empire, the continent had been plunged into chaos,
as mighty empires gave way to small, struggling tribes.
Among these fractious factions were the Franks, a tribe that lived in what is now modern-day
France.
With the once-mighty Merovingian dynasty in decline, the true power lay in the hands of
a certain Charles, the Mayor of the Palace.
By 714, he was the undisputed King of the Franks in all but name, ruling with an iron
fist over a realm wracked by intrigue and betrayal.
Yet despite the dangers that lurked within his own court, Charles faced a far greater
threat - one that came not from within, but from the East.
In the 7th century, a new religion emerged on the Arabian peninsula.
After years of conflict, the followers, known as Muslims, managed to establish an Islamic
State at Medina.
After the prophet Muhammed passed away, the Islamic community known as Ummah elected leaders,
known as caliphs.
The Umayyad Caliphate was the second of the four major Islamic caliphates established
after Muham med’s death.
Founded in 661 AD, its caliph was seated in Damascus, Syria.
With their relentless energy and unbridled ambition, they expanded their empire across
the lands of the Middle East and North Africa, making Islam the dominant force in the region
and ushering in a new era of faith and glory.
Within a century of the emergence of Islam on the Arabic peninsula, the religion expanded
itself at a rapid pace.
In the east, the Muslim’s gaze was fixed firmly on the city of Constantinople.
In 717, they laid siege to it.
But in the west, their focus was directed elsewhere.
It focused on a kingdom that was vastly different from the Byzantine Empire in the east.
In the year 710 AD, the Iberian peninsula lay in ruins, wracked by famine, disease,
and war.
Its Visigothic King, Wittiza, was weak and vulnerable, his people on the brink of collapse.
And in the midst of this chaos, as Wittiza passed away, a nobleman named Roderic seized
the throne, his eyes fixed firmly on the crown that he believed was rightfully his.
With a cruel and iron hand, he set about consolidating his power, eager to stamp out any opposition
to his rule.
Wittiza’s sons refused to accept his usurpation.
They took every chance they could to seize the throne, leading to an all-out civil war.
Against the backdrop of this unstable situation, the Umayyad governor of Northern Africa sought
to keep the Berbers or Moor mercenaries occupied.
To do so, he sent the commander Tariq ibn Ziyad towards the Iberian peninsula, which
they referred to as Al-Andalus.
He anchored on the Iberian shore after crossing the strait of Gibraltar in 710 AD.
But all he had with him was a force of 400 soldiers.
It appeared, Tariq was planning on merely raiding the Visigothic Kingdom.
Tariq did raid the inlands, and realised how poorly defended the southern region was.
He learned the usurper, Roderic, was waging war against the Franks to the north.
This meant there would barely be any resistance to a serious invasion.
Still, the Caliph in Damascus only allowed for a raiding party, as he considered a full-scale
invasion too risky.
But Tariq and Musa did not heed these warnings.
They saw an opportunity - a chance to strike at the heart of a weakened and divided kingdom,
and to claim for themselves a prize beyond measure.
Tariq set out again to the Iberian peninsula.
The invading army was not homogenous or entirely loyal, however.
And despite appearing like a bulwark on the outside, the initial years of Umayyad presence
on the Iberian peninsula were marked by internal instability.
The main root of discontent was the division between the Arabic elite, discriminating against
the Berber majority on the island.
Down the line, this would pose significant problems for the conquest.
At Algericas, Tariq comfortably augmented his army and grew his numbers to around 7000,
all the while raiding the vicinity.
They captured the Visigothic capital, Toledo, and rapidly seized territories around it pushing
north.
Soon, news of the marauding invaders reached Roderic.
He was on a campaign in the north, crushing Basque dissent.
Understanding the severity of the situation, Roderic gathered his soldiers and embarked
on his march south to face the invaders.
The long march was not easy on his men.
Nearby the mouth of the Guadalete river, his army faced the invaders.
Outnumbering Tariq, the armies clashed.
After fierce combat, it appeared the numerical superiority was not decisive.
The Visigoths suffered a crushing defeat, and Roderic was slain during the battle.
The defeat would have far-reaching consequences for the Iberian Peninsula, and Europe as a
whole.
Meanwhile behind the invaders’ lines, news reached more Umayyads about the wealth and
treasures Al-Andalus harboured.
It sparked the interest of many.
Continuing to keep the berbers employed, governor Musa ibn Nusayr decided to see these lands
for himself.
Collecting a large army, he crossed into the new lands, intending to conquer it in its
entirety and strengthen the Umayyad grip on those already conquered.
Within five years of setting foot on the peninsula, the Umayyads conquered most of the peninsula.
It appeared they were unstoppable.
Often, a conquest was not combined with force.
Instead, the Umayyads concluded agreements with the Visigoths.
They allowed them to remain as local administrators, and they granted them rights of religious
freedom.
But they weren’t the well-oiled machine they appeared to be.
News of the rapid and profitable conquests reached the Umayyad Caliph in Damascus.
He became worried Musa and Tariq were a little bit too comfortable acting autonomously and
conquering new territories on their own accord.
He summoned both commanders to Damascus, where punishment awaited them.
However, even depriving the invasion force of its commanders did not stop them.
Musa’s son succeeded his father and conquered the remainder of the peninsula.
Their thirst for conquest was unquenched and their next target lay beyond the formidable
Pyrenees mountain chain.
To the north of the mountains lay the Christian Duchy of Aquitaine, a land known for its rebellious
nature against the Franks.
Yet, Duke Odo, the ruler of Aquitaine, was now more concerned about the threats emerging
from the south.
The Pyrenees proved no barrier to the Umayyads.
Under the command of Abdul Rahman, they launched a full-scale invasion, sweeping across the
Septimania province and laying waste to the vital settlement of Narbonne.
However, their reign of terror would soon come to a crashing halt.
In a titanic clash at Toulouse, Duke Odo met the invaders.
He emerged victorious, expelling them.
The internal division among the Muslims living on the peninsula provided an opportunity for
Odo.
He concluded an alliance with the Berber chieftain, governor of Cordoba, and rebel leader Munuza.
He married his daughter to him.
The alliance angered Abdul Rahman.
His defeat at Toulouse proved no decisive turn, as four years later the Umayyads returned
with a vengeance.
They occupied Carcassonne and Nimes, before advancing up the Rhone River Valley and plundering
Burgundy.
In a relentless push, the Umayyad governor led his army into the heart of Aquitaine.
He crossed the mighty Garonne River with a force that seemed invincible.
Duke Odo, though outnumbered, refused to cower in the face of such a menacing threat.
A fierce and brutal battle ensued, but the Umayyads' numerical superiority proved too
much.
Odo was forced to retreat, leaving his land at the mercy of the marauding conquerors.
Their looting and plundering ravaged the land, giving Odo just enough time to make a desperate
plea to the one man who could turn the tide: Mayor of the Palace, Charles.
In the heart of the Frankish realm, Charles Martel battled the Germanic tribes.
With cunning and strength, Charles seized the opportunity to expand his power.
He offered aid to the weakened Duke Odo of Aquitaine, but demanded his submission to
Frankish rule.
Odo had little choice but to accept, and thus the fate of the duchy hung in the balance.
As Abdul Rahman continued his advance, conquering Poitiers and marching onto Tours, Charles
marched to meet Abdul Rahman and his horde of conquerors.
[“If you follow my advice, you will not interrupt their march, nor precipitate your
attack.
They are like a torrent, which it is dangerous to stem in its career.
Be patient till they have loaded themselves with the encumbrance of wealth.
The possession of wealth will divide their counsels and assure your victory” -Charles
to Duke Odo.
(Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 6:17).]
[Battle sequence]
At dawn's break, Abdul Rahman and his army marched towards the legendary St. Martin monastery
at Tours.
According to contemporaries, he fielded a mighty host of 80,000 soldiers, though modern
estimates place it between 20,000 and 30,000.
The Arab army was comprised almost entirely of Moorish cavalry, and a cumbersome baggage
train weighed them down with ill-gotten spoils.
Charles commanded between 20- and 30.000 troops.
He stood resolute with his battle-hardened forces between Tours and Poitiers, blocking
the only path that the Umayyads would dare tread.
His loyal veterans, who had fought at his side for over a decade, made up the bulk of
his heavy infantry, alongside a plentiful levy of militiamen.
The armies' exact numbers are still fiercely debated, but it is believed that the Umayyads
outnumbered the Franks two to one, consisting mainly of infantry, with noble cavalry held
in reserve.
All chronicles agree Abdul Rahman’s forces were surprised by the major army blocking
their path towards Tours.
Their ignorance of the Franks and their tactics stirred apprehension.
The sudden appearance of the opposition was enough to unsettle the burdened army.
Although he had the element of surprise on his side, Charles opted for a defensive approach,
positioning his troops amidst the trees, elevations, and rivers.
His infantry deployed in a large square with their spears pointed outward.
The compact phalanx-like formation would break any cavalry attack before it could severely
impact his ranks.
Charles himself stood right behind the second row of his infantry, together with his personal
bodyguard.
To the Frankish left flank stood duke Odo with his soldiers.
Abdul Rahman understood this and took a passive stance.
For an entire week, occasional skirmishes happened between Muslim- and militia soldiers.
Both sides parried and probed.
Several light cavalry contingents launched minor attacks against the Franks.
But no decisive clash occurred.
The Muslim army hoped reinforcements would soon arrive.
Their superior numbers would surely allow them to crush the enemy.
However, they remained unsure of the true size of Charles' army, as he had concealed
its true number through strategic positioning.
After a week of waiting and skirmishes, Abdul Rahman had enough.
He launched his cavalry in a full-scale, frontal assault against the well-defended Franks.
These still stood shoulder-to-shoulder, in a compact phalanx formation.
Protected by their spears and a tight shield wall, while the horsemen charged uphill, the
odds did not seem to be in Abdul Rahman’s favour.
They crashed into the Frankish lines.
The Frankish soldiers, armed with their spears, swords and battle-axes fiercely fought back.
The Battle was intense and brutal, with both sides determined to emerge victorious.
Despite the overwhelming odds, the Frankish soldiers held their ground, fighting fiercely
with spears, swords, and battle-axes.
In a moment of chaos, the Muslims managed to break through the infantry lines and advance
towards Charles himself.
But the Frankish bodyguard, led by their fearless leader, launched a counter-attack and engaged
in a ferocious melee, pushing back the enemy cavalry.
As the sun began to set, the battle still raged on, neither side willing to concede
defeat.
As the fighting intensified, Duke Odo and his soldiers saw an opportunity to strike.
The Arab baggage train was left unprotected.
Sources conflict whether they used horses, or simply ran towards the baggage train.
What is for sure, is that around dusk, Duke Odo and his soldiers launched a counter-attack
against the Arab camp.
The sudden attack caught the Umayyads off guard, and several Muslim units were forced
to withdraw from the battle to defend their camp.
The battle on both fronts became even more frenzied, as the Franks fought to secure their
victory, and the Umayyads fought to protect their supplies.
The left flank, or at least part of it, perceived the initial Muslim breakaway to protect the
baggage train as a retreat.
In the chaos, order disintegrated and many soldiers broke away to flee.
Amidst the turmoil, as discipline crumbled, and many soldiers abandoned the fight, Abdul
Rahman was left exposed.
In the heat of the moment, he met his end.
With their leader fallen, the Arab army lost all sense of order and dissolved into panic.
Charles emerged victorious from the hard-fought battle.
The following morning, his scouts confirmed the Umayyads had retreated to the south, cementing
his triumph..
Casualties on both sides were significant.
Frankish chronicles detail how the Umayyads suffered up to 360.000 casualties, against
only 1500 Frankish.
This figure is wildly exaggerated.
It is more likely the Umayyads suffered up to 2000, whereas the Franks suffered between
500 and 1000.
Considering Charles’ army consisted mainly of infantry, he was in no position to pursue
the fleeing enemy.
[Aftermath]
As the dust settled on the battlefield, it became clear Charles and his army had won
the battle.
If the Christian Franks had lost at Tours, it would have been very likely larger parts
of Western Europa had fallen to Islam.
In essence, this victory stopped the spread of Islam and preserved the Christian and Germanic
cultures in the region.
For his role in the battle, Charles received the moniker “Martel” meaning so much as
“the Hammer”.
Abdul Rahman retreated towards the Iberian peninsula.
Muslim invasions continued for a couple more years.
In 735 AD they even reached Avignon.
But Charles Martel’s victory marked the beginning of the waning power of the Umayyads.
They had conquered the Iberian peninsula at a record tempo, but would never see their
expansion reach Northern France.
Charles Martel went on to establish the Carolingian dynasty.
They would go on to become a powerful and influential dynasty.
Their emergence marked a turning point in the history of Western Europe, as it established
a powerful and centralised state and laid the foundations for the later Holy Roman Empire.
Two years after Tours, Odo passed away, and his two sons inherited his Duchy.
Charles quickly overran it, forcing Odo’s sons to pledge fealty to him.
The Carolingian dynasty saw its greatest expansion under Charles’ grandson, known to us as
Charlemagne.
Thank you for watching this video.