Hedonism Hedonism is a school of thought that argues
that pleasure is the only intrinsic good.
In very simple terms, a hedonist strives to maximize net pleasure .
Ethical hedonism is the idea that all people have the right to do everything in their power
to achieve the greatest amount of pleasure possible to them.
It is also the idea that every person's pleasure should far surpass their amount of pain.
Ethical hedonism is said to have been started by a student of Socrates, Aristippus of Cyrene.
He held the idea that pleasure is the highest good.
Etymology The name derives from the Greek word for "delight"
(ἡδονισμός hēdonismos from ἡδονή hēdonē "pleasure", cognate with English
sweet + suffix -ισμός -ismos "ism").
History of development Sumerian civilization
In the original Old Babylonian version of the Epic of Gilgamesh, which was written soon
after the invention of writing, Siduri gave the following advice "Fill your belly.
Day and night make merry.
Let days be full of joy.
Dance and make music day and night These things alone are the concern of men", which may represent
the first recorded advocacy of a hedonistic philosophy.
Ancient Egypt Scenes of a harper entertaining guests at
a feast was common in ancient Egyptian tombs (see Harper's Songs), and sometimes contained
hedonistic elements, calling guests to submit to pleasure because they cannot be sure that
they will be rewarded for good with a blissful afterlife.
The following is a song attributed to the reign of one of the Intef kings before or
after the 12th dynasty, and the text was used in the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties.
Cārvāka Cārvāka was an Indian hedonist school of
thought that arose approximately 600 BCE, and died out in the 14th century CE.
The Cārvākas maintained that the Hindu scriptures are false, that the priests are liars, and
that there is no afterlife, and that pleasure should be the aim of living.
Unlike other Indian schools of philosophy, the Cārvākas argued that there is nothing
wrong with sensual indulgence.
They held a naturalistic worldview.
They believed that perception is the only source of knowledge.
Classic schools of antiquity Democritus seems to be the earliest philosopher
on record to have categorically embraced a hedonistic philosophy; he called the supreme
goal of life "contentment" or "cheerfulness", claiming that "joy and sorrow are the distinguishing
mark of things beneficial and harmful" (DK 68 B 188).
The Cyrenaic school The Cyrenaics were an ultra-hedonist Greek
school of philosophy founded in the 4th century BCE, supposedly by Aristippus of Cyrene, although
many of the principles of the school are believed to have been formalized by his grandson of
the same name, Aristippus the Younger.
The school was so called after Cyrene, the birthplace of Aristippus.
It was one of the earliest Socratic schools.
The Cyrenaics taught that the only intrinsic good is pleasure, which meant not just the
absence of pain, but positively enjoyable sensations.
Of these, momentary pleasures, especially physical ones, are stronger than those of
anticipation or memory.
They did, however, recognize the value of social obligation, and that pleasure could
be gained from altruism.
Theodorus the Atheist was a latter exponent of hedonism who was a disciple of younger
Aristippus, while becoming well known for exposing atheism.
The school died out within a century, and was replaced by Epicureanism.
The Cyrenaics were known for their skeptical theory of knowledge.
They reduced logic to a basic doctrine concerning the criterion of truth.
They thought that we can know with certainty our immediate sense-experiences (for instance,
that I am having a sweet sensation now) but can know nothing about the nature of the objects
that cause these sensations (for instance, that the honey is sweet).
They also denied that we can have knowledge of what the experiences of other people are
like.
All knowledge is immediate sensation.
These sensations are motions which are purely subjective, and are painful, indifferent or
pleasant, according as they are violent, tranquil or gentle.
Further they are entirely individual, and can in no way be described as constituting
absolute objective knowledge.
Feeling, therefore, is the only possible criterion of knowledge and of conduct.
Our ways of being affected are alone knowable.
Thus the sole aim for everyone should be pleasure.
Cyrenaicism deduces a single, universal aim for all people which is pleasure.
Furthermore, all feeling is momentary and homogeneous.
It follows that past and future pleasure have no real existence for us, and that among present
pleasures there is no distinction of kind.
Socrates had spoken of the higher pleasures of the intellect; the Cyrenaics denied the
validity of this distinction and said that bodily pleasures, being more simple and more
intense, were preferable.
Momentary pleasure, preferably of a physical kind, is the only good for humans.
However some actions which give immediate pleasure can create more than their equivalent
of pain.
The wise person should be in control of pleasures rather than be enslaved to them, otherwise
pain will result, and this requires judgement to evaluate the different pleasures of life.
Regard should be paid to law and custom, because even though these things have no intrinsic
value on their own, violating them will lead to unpleasant penalties being imposed by others.
Likewise, friendship and justice are useful because of the pleasure they provide.
Thus the Cyrenaics believed in the hedonistic value of social obligation and altruistic
behaviour.
Epicureanism Epicureanism is a system of philosophy based
upon the teachings of Epicurus (c. 341–c. 270 BC), founded around 307 BC.
Epicurus was an atomic materialist, following in the steps of Democritus and Leucippus.
His materialism led him to a general stance against superstition or the idea of divine
intervention.
Following Aristippus—about whom very little is known—Epicurus believed that the greatest
good was to seek modest, sustainable "pleasure" in the form of a state of tranquility and
freedom from fear (ataraxia) and absence of bodily pain (aponia) through knowledge of
the workings of the world and the limits of our desires.
The combination of these two states is supposed to constitute happiness in its highest form.
Although Epicureanism is a form of hedonism, insofar as it declares pleasure as the sole
intrinsic good, its conception of absence of pain as the greatest pleasure and its advocacy
of a simple life make it different from "hedonism" as it is commonly understood.
In the Epicurean view, the highest pleasure (tranquility and freedom from fear) was obtained
by knowledge, friendship and living a virtuous and temperate life.
He lauded the enjoyment of simple pleasures, by which he meant abstaining from bodily desires,
such as sex and appetites, verging on asceticism.
He argued that when eating, one should not eat too richly, for it could lead to dissatisfaction
later, such as the grim realization that one could not afford such delicacies in the future.
Likewise, sex could lead to increased lust and dissatisfaction with the sexual partner.
Epicurus did not articulate a broad system of social ethics that has survived but had
a unique version of the Golden Rule.
Epicureanism was originally a challenge to Platonism, though later it became the main
opponent of Stoicism.
Epicurus and his followers shunned politics.
After the death of Epicurus, his school was headed by Hermarchus; later many Epicurean
societies flourished in the Late Hellenistic era and during the Roman era (such as those
in Antiochia, Alexandria, Rhodes and Ercolano).
The poet Lucretius is its most known Roman proponent.
By the end of the Roman Empire, having undergone Christian attack and repression, Epicureanism
had all but died out, and would be resurrected in the 17th century by the atomist Pierre
Gassendi, who adapted it to the Christian doctrine.
Some writings by Epicurus have survived.
Some scholars consider the epic poem On the Nature of Things by Lucretius to present in
one unified work the core arguments and theories of Epicureanism.
Many of the papyrus scrolls unearthed at the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum are Epicurean
texts.
At least some are thought to have belonged to the Epicurean Philodemus.
Mohism Mohism was a philosophical school of thought
founded by Mozi in the 5th century BCE.
It paralleled the utilitarianism later developed by English thinkers.
As Confucianism became the preferred philosophy of later Chinese dynasties, starting from
the Emperor Wu of Han, Mohism and other non-Confucian philosophical schools of thought were suppressed.
Christian hedonism Christian hedonism is a controversial Christian
doctrine current in some evangelical circles, particularly those of the Reformed tradition.
" Christian Hedonism may describe the theology of Jonathan Edwards.
In the 17th century the atomist Pierre Gassendi, adapted Epicureanism to the Christian doctrine.
Utilitarianism Utilitarianism addresses problems with moral
motivation neglected by Kantianism by giving a central role to happiness.
It is an ethical theory holding that the proper course of action is the one that maximizes
the overall "good" of the society.
It is thus one form of consequentialism meaning that the moral worth of an action is determined
by its resulting outcome.
The most influential contributors to this theory are considered to be Jeremy Bentham
and John Stuart Mill.
The 18th and 19th-century British philosophers Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill defended
the ethical theory of utilitarianism, according to which we should perform whichever action
maximizes the aggregate good.
Conjoining hedonism, as a view as to what is good for people, to utilitarianism has
the result that all action should be directed toward achieving the greatest total amount
of happiness (Hedonic Calculus).
Though consistent in their pursuit of happiness, Bentham and Mill’s versions of hedonism
differ.
There are two somewhat basic schools of thought on hedonism:
One school, grouped around Jeremy Bentham, defends a quantitative approach.
Bentham believed that the value of a pleasure could be quantitatively understood.
Essentially, he believed the value of pleasure to be its intensity multiplied by its duration
- so it was not just the number of pleasures, but their intensity and how long they lasted
that must be taken into account.
Other proponents, like John Stuart Mill, argue a qualitative approach.
Mill believed that there can be different levels of pleasure - higher quality pleasure
is better than lower quality pleasure.
Mill also argues that simpler beings (he often refers to pigs) have an easier access to the
simpler pleasures; since they do not see other aspects of life, they can simply indulge in
their lower pleasures.
The more elaborate beings tend to spend more thought on other matters and hence lessen
the time for simple pleasure.
It is therefore more difficult for them to indulge in such "simple pleasures" in the
same manner.
Contemporary approaches Contemporary proponents of hedonism are Swedish
philosopher Torbjörn Tännsjö and Fred Feldman.
Michel Onfray A dedicated contemporary hedonist philosopher
and on the history of hedonistic thought is the French Michel Onfray.
He defines hedonism "as an introspective attitude to life based on taking pleasure yourself
and pleasuring others, without harming yourself or anyone else."
"Onfray's philosophical project is to define an ethical hedonism, a joyous utilitarianism,
and a generalized aesthetic of sensual materialism that explores how to use the brain's and the
body's capacities to their fullest extent -- while restoring philosophy to a useful
role in art, politics, and everyday life and decisions."
Onfray's works "have explored the philosophical resonances and components of (and challenges
to) science, painting, gastronomy, sex and sensuality, bioethics, wine, and writing.
His most ambitious project is his projected six-volume Counter-history of Philosophy,"
of which three have been published.
For him "In opposition to the ascetic ideal advocated by the dominant school of thought,
hedonism suggests identifying the highest good with your own pleasure and that of others;
the one must never be indulged at the expense of sacrificing the other.
Obtaining this balance – my pleasure at the same time as the pleasure of others – presumes
that we approach the subject from different angles – political, ethical, aesthetic,
erotic, bioethical, pedagogical, historiographical…."
For this he has "written books on each of these facets of the same world view."
His philosophy aims "for "micro-revolutions, " or revolutions of the individual and small
groups of like-minded people who live by his hedonistic, libertarian values."
Abolitionism The Abolitionist Society is a transhumanist
group calling for the abolition of suffering in all sentient life through the use of advanced
biotechnology.
Their core philosophy is negative utilitarianism.
David Pearce is a theorist of this perspective and he believes and promotes the idea that
there exists a strong ethical imperative for humans to work towards the abolition of suffering
in all sentient life.
His book-length internet manifesto The Hedonistic Imperative outlines how technologies such
as genetic engineering, nanotechnology, pharmacology, and neurosurgery could potentially converge
to eliminate all forms of unpleasant experience among human and non-human animals, replacing
suffering with gradients of well-being, a project he refers to as "paradise engineering".
A transhumanist and a vegan, Pearce believes that we (or our future posthuman descendants)
have a responsibility not only to avoid cruelty to animals within human society but also to
alleviate the suffering of animals in the wild.
Criticisms There is a critical point where the value
of hedonistic properties is affected by actual age and the depreciation schedule turns upward.
It is argued that if social constructionism is going to come to grips with morality and
agency it must abandon explanations that invoke the necessary causation of metaphysical abstractions
such as hedonism.