Dominion theology (also known as dominionism) is a group of Christian political ideologies
that seek to institute a nation governed by Christians based on their personal understandings
of biblical law. Extents of rule and ways of achieving governing authority are varied.
For example, dominion theology can include theonomy, but does not necessarily involve
advocating Mosaic law as the basis of government. The label is applied primarily toward groups
of Christians in the United States. Prominent adherents of these ideologies are
otherwise theologically diverse, including Calvinist Christian reconstructionism, Roman
Catholic Integralism, Charismatic/Pentecostal Kingdom
Now theology, New Apostolic Reformation, and others. Most of the contemporary movements
labeled dominion theology arose in the 1970s from religious movements asserting aspects
of Christian nationalism. Some have applied the term dominionist more
broadly to the whole Christian right. This usage is controversial. There are concerns
from members of these communities that this is a label being used to marginalize Christians
from public discourse. Others argue this allegation can be difficult to sympathize with considering
the political power already held by these groups and on account of the often verbally
blatant intention of these groups to influence the political, social, financial, and cultural
spectrums of society for a specific religion, often at the expense of other marginalized
groups.
== Etymology == Dominion theology is a reference to the King
James Bible's rendering of Genesis 1:28, the passage in which God grants humanity "dominion"
over the Earth.
And God blessed them, and God said unto them, "Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish
the earth, and subdue it: and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl
of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth."
In the late 1980s, several prominent evangelical authors used the phrase dominion theology
(and other terms such as dominionism) to label a loose grouping of theological movements
that made direct appeals to this passage in Genesis. Christians typically interpret this
passage as meaning that God gave mankind responsibility over the Earth, but one of the distinctive
aspects of Dominion Theology is that it is interpreted as a mandate for Christian stewardship
in civil affairs, no less than in other human matters.
== Types ==
=== Christian reconstructionism ===
An example of dominionism in reformed theology is Christian reconstructionism, which originated
with the teachings of R. J. Rushdoony in the 1960s and 1970s. Rushdoony's theology focuses
on theonomy (the rule of the Law of God), a belief that all of society should be ordered
according to the laws that governed the Israelites in the Old Testament. His system is strongly
Calvinistic, emphasizing the sovereignty of God over human freedom and action, and denying
the operation of charismatic gifts in the present day (cessationism); both of these
aspects are in direct opposition to Kingdom Now Theology.
Full adherents to reconstructionism are few and marginalized among most Christians. Dave
Hunt, Albert James Dager Hal Lindsey, and Thomas Ice specifically criticize Christian
reconstructionism from a Christian viewpoint, disagreeing on theological grounds with its
theocratic elements as well as its Calvinism and postmillennialism. J. Ligon Duncan, Sherman
Isbell,Vern Poythress,Robert Godfrey, and Sinclair Ferguson analyze reconstructionism
as conservative Calvinists, primarily giving a theological critique of its theocratic elements.
Michael J. McVicar has noted that many leading Christian reconstructionists are also leading
writers in paleolibertarian circles.Some social scientists have used the word dominionism
to refer to adherence to Christian reconstructionism.
=== Integralism === Catholic Integralism has been characterized
as a form of dominionist theology. Antonio Spadaro and Marcelo Figueroa have stated that
Catholic Integralists have entered into a non-traditional ecumenical alliance with Protestant
reconstructionists who share "the same desire for religious influence in the political sphere".
Likewise, in the National Catholic Reporter, Joshua J. McElwee stated that Catholic Integralists,
along with their Protestant counterparts, wish to achieve the goal of establishing a
"theocratic type of state".
=== Kingdom Now theology === Kingdom Now theology is a branch of Dominion
Theology which has had a following within Pentecostalism. It attracted attention in
the late 1980s.Kingdom Now theology states that although Satan has been in control of
the world since the Fall, God is looking for people who will help him take back dominion.
Those who yield themselves to the authority of God's apostles and prophets will take control
of the kingdoms of this world, being defined as all social institutions, the "kingdom"
of education, the "kingdom" of science, the "kingdom" of the arts, etc. C. Peter Wagner,
the founder of the New Apostolic Reformation, writes: "The practical theology that best
builds a foundation under social transformation is dominion theology, sometimes called 'Kingdom
Now'. Its history can be traced back through R. J. Rushdoony and Abraham Kuyper to John
Calvin."Kingdom Now theology is influenced by the Latter Rain movement, and critics have
connected it to the New Apostolic Reformation, "Spiritual Warfare Christianity," and Fivefold
ministry thinking.Kingdom Now theology should not be confused with Kingdom theology, which
is related to inaugurated eschatology.
== Dominionism and the Christian right == In the late 1980s sociologist Sara Diamond
began writing about the intersection of dominion theology with the political activists of the
Christian right. Diamond argued that "the primary importance of the [Christian reconstructionist]
ideology is its role as a catalyst for what is loosely called 'dominion theology'". According
to Diamond, "Largely through the impact of Rushdoony's and North's writings, the concept
that Christians are Biblically mandated to 'occupy' all secular institutions has become
the central unifying ideology for the Christian Right" (emphasis in original) in the United
States. While acknowledging the small number of actual
adherents, authors such as Diamond and Frederick Clarkson have argued that postmillennial Christian
reconstructionism played a major role in pushing the primarily premillennial Christian right
to adopt a more aggressive dominionist stance.Misztal and Shupe concur that "Reconstructionists
have many more sympathizers who fall somewhere within the dominionist framework, but who
are not card-carrying members". According to Diamond, "Reconstructionism is the most
intellectually grounded, though esoteric, brand of dominion theology".Journalist Frederick
Clarkson defined dominionism as a movement that, while
including dominion theology and reconstructionism as subsets, is much broader in scope, extending
to much of the Christian right in the United States.
In his 1992 study of dominion theology and its influence on the Christian right, Bruce
Barron writes,
In the context of American evangelical efforts to penetrate and transform public life, the
distinguishing mark of a dominionist is a commitment to defining and carrying out an
approach to building society that is self-consciously defined as exclusively Christian, and dependent
specifically on the work of Christians, rather than based on a broader consensus.
In 1995, Diamond called the influence of dominion theology "prevalent on the Christian Right".Journalist
Chip Berlet added in 1998 that, although they represent different theological and political
ideas, dominionists assert a Christian duty to take "control of a sinful secular society".In
2005, Clarkson enumerated the following characteristics shared by all forms of dominionism:
Dominionists celebrate Christian nationalism, in that they believe that the United States
once was, and should once again be, a Christian nation. In this way, they deny the Enlightenment
roots of American democracy. Dominionists promote religious supremacy,
insofar as they generally do not respect the equality of other religions, or even other
versions of Christianity. Dominionists endorse theocratic visions, insofar
as they believe that the Ten Commandments, or "biblical law," should be the foundation
of American law, and that the U.S. Constitution should be seen as a vehicle for implementing
Biblical principles. Essayist Katherine Yurica began using the
term dominionism in her articles in 2004, beginning with "The Despoiling of America"
(February 11, 2004), Authors who also use the term dominionism in the broader sense
include journalist Chris Hedges Marion Maddox, James Rudin, Michelle Goldberg, Kevin Phillips,
Sam Harris, Ryan Lizza, Frank Schaeffer, and the group TheocracyWatch. Some authors
have applied the term to a broader spectrum of people than have Diamond, Clarkson, and
Berlet. Sarah Posner in Salon argues that there are
various "iterations of dominionism that call on Christians to enter ... government, law,
media and so forth ... so that they are controlled by Christians". According to Posner, "Christian
right figures promoted dominionism ... and the GOP courted ... religious leaders for
the votes of their followers". She added: "If people really understood dominionism,
they’d worry about it between election cycles."Michelle Goldberg notes that George Grant wrote in
his 1987 book The Changing of the Guard: Biblical Principles for Political Action:
Christians have an obligation, a mandate, a commission, a holy responsibility to reclaim
the land for Jesus Christ—to have dominion in civil structures, just as in every other
aspect of life and godliness. ... But it is dominion we are after. Not just a voice. ... Christian
politics has as its primary intent the conquest of the land—of men, families, institutions,
bureaucracies, courts, and governments for the Kingdom of Christ.
=== A spectrum of dominionism === Writers including Chip Berlet and Frederick
Clarkson distinguish between what they term "hard" and "soft" dominionism. Such commentators
define "soft" dominionism as the belief that "America is a Christian nation" and opposition
to separation of church and state, while "hard" dominionism refers to dominion theology and
Christian reconstructionism. Michelle Goldberg uses the terms Christian
nationalism and dominionism for the former view. According to Goldberg:
In many ways, Dominionism is more a political phenomenon than a theological one. It cuts
across Christian denominations, from stern, austere sects to the signs-and-wonders culture
of modern megachurches. Think of it like political Islamism, which shapes the activism of a number
of antagonistic fundamentalist movements, from Sunni Wahabis in the Arab world to Shiite
fundamentalists in Iran. Berlet and Clarkson have agreed that "[s]oft
Dominionists are Christian nationalists". Unlike "dominionism", the phrase "Christian
nation" occurs commonly in the writings of leaders of the Christian right. Proponents
of this idea (such as David Barton and D. James Kennedy) argue that the Founding Fathers
of the United States were overwhelmingly Christian, that founding documents such as the Declaration
of Independence and the Constitution are based on Christian principles, and that a Christian
character is fundamental to American culture. They cite, for example, the U.S. Supreme Court's
comment in 1892 that "this [the United States] is a Christian nation", after citing numerous
historical and legal arguments in support of that statement.Kennedy characterized his
perspective on Christian political involvement as more akin to participatory democracy than
to dominionism. In an interview with NPR's Terry Gross, Kennedy was asked whether he
wanted all public office holders to be Christians. Kennedy answered, "We have people who are
secular and humanist and unbelievers who are constantly supporting in every way possible
other people who share those views. And I don't object to that. That's their privilege.
And I think that Christians should be allowed the same privilege to vote for people whom
they believe share their views about life and government. And that's all I'm talking
about."
=== Criticism of the usage of the term dominionism ===
Those labelled dominionists rarely use the terms dominionist and dominionism for self-description,
and some people have attacked the use of such words. Journalist and conservative comentator
Anthony Williams, writing for Frontpage Magazine, charged that such usage aims "to smear the
Republican Party as the party of domestic Theocracy, facts be damned". Journalist and
conservative commentator Stanley Kurtz, writing for the National Review, labeled it "conspiratorial
nonsense", "political paranoia", and "guilt by association", and decried Hedges' "vague
characterizations" that allow him to "paint a highly questionable picture of a virtually
faceless and nameless 'Dominionist' Christian mass". Kurtz also complained about a perceived
link between average Christian evangelicals and extremism such as Christian reconstructionism:
The notion that conservative Christians want to reinstitute slavery and rule by genocide
is not just crazy, it's downright dangerous. The most disturbing part of the Harper's cover
story (the one by Chris Hedges) was the attempt to link Christian conservatives with Hitler
and fascism. Once we acknowledge the similarity between conservative Christians and fascists,
Hedges appears to suggest, we can confront Christian evil by setting aside 'the old polite
rules of democracy.' So wild conspiracy theories and visions of genocide are really excuses
for the Left to disregard the rules of democracy and defeat conservative Christians—by any
means necessary. Joe Carter of First Things writes:
[T]here is no "school of thought" known as "dominionism." The term was coined in the
1980s by Diamond and is never used outside liberal blogs and websites. No reputable scholars
use the term for it is a meaningless neologism that Diamond concocted for her dissertation.
Diamond has denied that she coined the broader sense of the term dominionism, which appears
in her dissertation and in Roads to Dominion solely to describe Dominion Theology. Nevertheless,
Diamond did originate the idea that Dominion Theology is the "central unifying ideology
for the Christian Right".Jeremy Pierce of First Things coined the word dominionismist
to describe those who promote the idea that there is a dominionist conspiracy, writing:
It strikes me as irresponsible to lump [Rushdoony] together with Francis Schaeffer and those
influenced by him, especially given Schaeffer's many recorded instances of resisting exactly
the kinds of views Rushdoony developed. Indeed, it strikes me as an error of the magnitude
of some of Rushdoony's own historical nonsense to consider there to be such a view called
Dominionism [sic] that Rushdoony, Schaeffer, James Dobson, and all the other people in
the list somehow share and that it seeks to get Christians and only Christians into all
the influential positions in secular society. Lisa Miller of Newsweek writes that "'dominionism'
is the paranoid mot du jour" and that "certain journalists use 'dominionist' the way some
folks on Fox News use the word sharia. Its strangeness scares people. Without history
or context, the word creates a siege mentality in which 'we' need to guard against 'them'."
Ross Douthat of The New York Times noted that "many of the people that writers like Diamond
and others describe as 'dominionists' would disavow the label, many definitions of dominionism
conflate several very different Christian political theologies, and there's a lively
debate about whether the term is even useful at all."Other criticism has focused on the
proper use of the term. Berlet wrote that "just because some critics of the Christian
Right have stretched the term dominionism past its breaking point does not mean we should
abandon the term", and argued that, rather than labeling conservatives as extremists,
it would be better to "talk to these people" and "engage them". Sara Diamond wrote that
"[l]iberals' writing about the Christian Right's take-over plans has generally taken the form
of conspiracy theory", and argued that instead one should "analyze the subtle ways" that
ideas like Dominionism "take hold within movements and why". Authors Robert Gagnon and Edith
Humphrey argued strongly against the use of the term in reference to US presidential candidate
Ted Cruz in a 2016 op-ed for Christianity Today.
== See also ==
== References ==
=== Notes ===
=== Bibliography === Barron, Bruce A. (1992). Heaven on earth?:
the social & political agendas of dominion theology. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan.
ISBN 0-310-53611-1. Rushdoony, Rousas John; Gary North (1973).
Institutes of Biblical Law. Phillipsburg, New Jersey: P & R Publishing. ISBN 0-87552-410-9.
Diamond, Sara (1995). Roads to dominion: right-wing movements and political power in the United
States. New York: Guilford Press. ISBN 0-89862-864-4. Lindsey, Hal (1989). The Road to Holocaust.
London: Bantam. ISBN 0-553-05724-3. Wagner, C. Peter (2008). Dominion! How Kingdom
Action Can Change the World. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Chosen Books. ISBN 0-8007-9435-4.