With the first campaign in Britannia unsuccessful, Caesar was eager to return and conquer this
island again. At the same time, the political and military situation in Rome and Gaul were
very complicated. Caesar ambitions pushed his internal and external enemies to move
against him; they were seemingly countless and brought him to the brink…
After dealing with some administrative matters in 54 BC, Caesar began planning a second campaign
in Britain. Almost 600 hundred transports and 28 warships were built, implementing Veneti
shipbuilding techniques better suited to the rough seas. Caesar called on his Gallic allies
and vassals and amassed 4000 cavalry, including tribal leaders, once again bolstering his
army and minimising the risk of revolts in Gaul. He left half of this cavalry and 3 legions
in Gaul, and crossed with 5 legions and 2000 cavalry - more than double his previous numbers.
This was going to be a full invasion. Caesar landed at the same place as before,
but this time he was unopposed. He quickly established a camp in the area and sent out
scouts, who promptly brought back some local prisoners. They informed Caesar that a large
army had actually gathered to oppose the landing but had retreated upon seeing the size of
Caesar’s force. Leaving a legion at the camp, he immediately set out in search of
the Briton army. The Romans marched through the night
and were able to catch up to the Britons in a hillfort on the other side of a river. Although
the Romans were tired, Caesar was determined to confront them, and began crossing. The
Britons’ cavalry and chariots rushed down from the high ground to harass the Romans
as they crossed. Caesar’s allied Gallic cavalry were experienced in fighting in such
scenarios, and proved their value, chasing off the Britons, who quickly retreated to
the woods surrounding the fort. As the Legions began their advance up the
hill, they were harassed from the woods by the Britons, preventing them from making significant
progress until the 12th Legion formed a testudo and were able to make a rudimentary rampart
in order to move over the walls. The Romans were now inside the fortifications, but the
Britons were quick to escape the fort and retreated deeper into the woods. Considering
the men had carried out a night march and battle, and that he did not know the terrain
and whether any more Britons would be waiting for him, Caesar made camp for the night.
The next day word reached him that a storm in the night had, again, damaged his ships.
Without the ships, Caesar would be at the mercy of the Britons, so he decided to prioritise
overseeing their repairs. He commanded his army to reassemble and march back to the beach.
Upon arriving, he discovered that 40 ships were beyond repair, but the rest were salvageable.
Caesar ordered that the ships be brought onto the beach and a large wall was constructed
encompassing the camp and the ships. He also sent word to Labienus to build more ships
in Gaul. He then set off once again to find the Britons.
They were in the same hill fort, but it was a larger force than before, under the command
of Cassivellaunus, a tribal leader beyond the Thames, who was appointed the leader of
a united coalition against the Romans. Caesar had marched past this fort, possibly
not wanting to attack such a large and fortified army, instead attacking exposed villages to
try and draw Cassivellaunus out. At the same time, his troops were constantly harassed
by the Britons’ cavalry and chariots fighting skirmishes with the Roman cavalry on the flanks,
luring them into the forests before turning back to inflict significant casualties.
The Britons seemingly allowed the Roman advanced party time to begin making a fort for the
night. However, as construction began the Britons attacked again. The Romans who were
on guard were able to form a line to defend the site, but the fighting was brutal, with
the Briton chariots darting in and out of the Roman formation. Caesar was forced to
send a further 2 cohorts from the vanguard to quickly reinforce this line.
The Romans were not used to the Briton style of fighting, particularly chariot hit and
run tactics drawing out the Roman infantry from formation who were too slow to catch
them. At one point, the Britons were able to draw out a maniple far enough to create
a gap which they were able to exploit, punching through the Roman line and inflicting many
casualties. It was not until the rest of the Roman army caught up that the Britons disengaged
and retreated. Cassivellaunus was proving himself a cunning enemy.
Caesar marched to the Thames, towards Cassivellaunus’ own territories, in an attempt to draw them
out. Though he was able to find a position on the river where could cross, the Legions
were once again harassed by Britons amassed on the other bank, who quickly retreated once
the Romans were on dry land. Cassivellaunus then made the decision to dismiss
the vast majority of his army except for 4000 chariots, likely realising that fighting a
pitched battle against the Roman heavy infantry would be futile. A smaller force would serve
him much better in a guerrilla war; it would be easier to hide, faster to move, and need
fewer supplies to maintain. Given the fact that he knew the terrain and Caesar did not,
this was a smart and calculated move. However, Cassivellaunus’ previous wars with
other Britons had made him many enemies, and his new guerrilla tactics were not popular
with the Trinobantes, whose leader Cassivellaunus had previously killed. They sent envoys to
Caesar, surrendering and promising hostages. The Trinobantes were second in power only
to Cassivellaunus himself and without their support, numerous tribes followed suit, surrendering
to Caesar. They also provided crucial intel to Caesar, including the location of Cassivellaunus’
capital. Caesar marched there, another hillfort, burning
all villages and fields on the way, and besieged it from both sides, once again hoping to draw
the Briton leader into a direct confrontation. Cassivellaunus, however, did not take the
bait. Although his guerrilla tactics were effective, they were taking a toll on the
Britons and the defenders within in the capital quickly fled.
Cassievalanus realised he needed to gain a victory. Not wanting to fight Caesar directly
though, he instead sent envoys to four allied kings in Kent, who launched an attack on the
Roman camp on the beach in order to try and draw Caesar away from Cassivellaunus’ land.
However, the Roman fortifications were strong, and the force Caesar had left on the beach
was easily able to repel the attack. Cassievalanus was forced to sue for peace.
Caesar readily accepted in exchange for hostages and tribute. Winter was closing in, and he
had no desire to spend it in unknown, hostile lands. The Romans returned to the beach and
sailed back to Gaul. Overall, it is hard to see the invasion as
an immense military victory. Cassivellaunus had not been decisively defeated in battle
nor captured, and the Romans maintained no presence in Britain. From the Britons’ stand
point it was a strategic victory, having successfully pushed the Romans out of their lands.
Still, his campaigns in Britain had taken 2 years, and without Caesars presence, Gaul
was beginning to stir. In 54 BC a Gallic tribe, the Eburones, under their leader, Ambiorix,
successfully revolted in Belgica, ambushing and destroying the 7000-9000 strong Roman
detachment that had been sent to winter in their territory at Atuatuca.
Following this success, Ambiorix began to besiege the Roman garrison in the Nervii territory,
and a general revolt in the area broke out, with Indutiomarus and the Treveri also rising
in rebellion and being supported by the Germanic tribes across the Rhine. This was a dangerous
position: Caesar had spread his legions across Gaul in order to not put too much strain on
the resources of one area, and thus divided, they were vulnerable targets.
However, he reacted quickly, marching directly to the besieged legion in Nervii territory,
while Labienus fought off Indutiomarus. Upon seeing Caesar approaching, Ambiorix gave up
the siege to face this new threat, and was quickly defeated while, almost simultaneously,
Labienus was able to successfully repel his opponents.
Roman retribution for this revolt was swift and devastating. The Eburones were effectively
wiped out, while Ambiorix, according to some sources, left Gaul for Germania. To help stabilise
the situation, Pompey mobilised two more Legions and Caesar himself raised another. He now
had almost 50,000 men in Gaul under his command. However, this was only the prelude to something
much bigger. In 52 BC Caesar returned to Italy in order
to defuse another political problem and in the same year, another large-scale revolt
started. An Arverni leader, Vercingetorix, who probably knew about the political problems
in Rome, had organised an alliance of powerful Gallic tribes that, inspired by Ambiorix,
were now seeking independence, and had begun attacking Roman outposts and Roman allies
in Gaul. Upon hearing this, Caesar quickly returned
to Gaul to handle the situation. Going on one of his famous forced marches, he swiftly
quelled the Senones and Carnutes by taking their capitals. His next target was one of
the largest towns of the Bituriges - Noviodunum. Vercingetorix attempted to stop Caesar’s
advance near the city, but the Roman heavy infantry was too much for the Gauls and they
were forced to retreat losing many, which allowed Caesar to take the city. To finish
off the Bituriges he needed to take their capital Avaricum. At this point, Vercingetorix
started employing the scorched earth tactics and Bituriges joined him by burning down 20
of their towns – every one but Avaricum. The Romans moved against this settlement and
besieged it and although Avaricum was very defensible and Vercingetorix attempted to
help its defenders, it fell in less than a month. Caesar slaughtered 40 thousand locals
and replenished his supplies. It was clear for Vercingetorix that he can’t
the Romans in the field. Meanwhile, Caesar was eager to end the rebellion before it spreads
to other Gallic tribes, so he decided to strike the decisive blow by taking the capital of
the Arverni - Gergovia. Leaving some troops in the area, Caesar marched with 25,000 towards
this settlement, while Vercingetorix shadowed him.
Vercingetorix shadowed him with a similarly sized force. Gergovia was in a very solid
defensive position, located on top of a high plateau, and Vercingetorix managed to overtake
Caesar and positioned his army on the hills in front of the city.
As he had done in previous battles, Caesar hoped to cut his enemies’ supply lines in
order to force them out of their defensive position, whilst he would be receiving supplies
from the Aedui, his Gallic allies. However, the Gauls had occupied a hill overlooking
the supply line, from where they could ensure water and grain could be transported into
the city; taking it would therefore be crucial to Caesar’s plan.
In a quick night attack, he was able to dislodge the Gallic garrison there and station two
legions on the hill, linking this position with the main roman camp by a trench. So far,
all was going according to plan; Caesar’s allies would supply him from the rear and
Vercingetorix would now be forced to either sacrifice his defensive position in order
to re-establish his supply line, or be starved out.
However, Vercingetorix had his own plans. He bribed the Aedui, who then also joined
the revolt, attacking the Roman supplies and threatening to cut off Caesar and surround
him. Once again, Vercingetorix seemed to have studied Rome’s tactics deeply, as this strategy
was one of Caesar’s own favourite strategies. Caesar was forced to leave two legions to
guard the Roman position at Gergovia, and took the other four to deal with the Aedui,
quickly subduing them and forcing them to send 10,000 cavalry back to the siege with
him. This revolt had Caesar worried that he might face even more revolts, and could soon
be encircled by the rebels; he needed to extract his legions from Gergovia and consolidate
his troops. However, the situation at the city was not
looking good. The two legions left to guard the Roman camp had been hard pressed the entire
time Caesar had been gone. Furthermore, Vercingetorix had divided his forces, leaving half to defend
and fortify main Gallic camp in front of the city, and half, led by himself, to fortify
positions on the surrounding hills on the Gallic right flank. With a 6-foot wall now
in front of the main Gallic camp, and the Gallic fortifications on the hills, Vercingetorix
had removed any opportunity for Caesar to encircle him and the city.
Seeing the Gallic forces divided, Caesar saw an opportunity to attack their main camp in
order to deal a heavy enough blow to allow his army to retreat unmolested. He sent a
diversionary force of one legion and some cavalry to the surrounding hills, making a
huge amount of noise in order to distract the force commanded by Vercingetorix. Then
he quickly and quietly moved his remaining legions up to the Gallic camp, leaving a few
cohorts in the smaller camp on the occupied hill, while the Aedui cavalry were sent to
flank around the Gallic left by another route. The Romans quickly clambered over the wall
and fell upon the Gallic camp. The Romans initially had significant success, pushing
the Gauls right up to the walls of the city, but Caesar ordered a withdrawal before the
rest of the Gallic force under Vercingetorix could reinforce them. However, only one legion,
the 10th, heard this order and retreated, the others continuing to press on and assaulting
the city itself. Some Romans managed to climb on top of the city walls but were quickly
cut down and thrown back off. Missiles from the city walls fell into the Roman ranks as
they fought around the base of the walls. Vercingetorix, realising what was happening
from his position on the surrounding hills, sent the rest of his force, headed by his
cavalry, to reinforce the camp. The Roman position was now truly desperate; the initial
Gallic force and the city walls were in front of them; there was no way of cutting a way
out by pushing forward, and with Vercingetorix crashing into their flank, the legionaries
were under serious pressure and were almost surrounded.
The officers did their best to maintain Roman discipline and form a defensive formation.
According to Caesar himself, 46 centurions died in this struggle, roughly a quarter of
all the centurions present, and so maintaining any solid formation was almost impossible.
The Aedui finally appeared on a hill to the Roman right flank, but the Romans, unable
to tell if they were allied or not, broke completely, thinking that they were about
to be fully surrounded. Caesar was able to use the 10th legion and
the cohorts that had been stationed in the small camp to cover the retreat, and prevented
the Gauls from chasing them down, avoiding the total destruction of his army, and withdrew
from the field. In his commentaries, Caesar says that only 700 men were lost in this battle,
but this is likely vastly underplaying the situation. Caesar being forced to assemble
a rear guard and retreating show how disastrous the battle was, and it is likely that the
Romans lost thousands, modern estimates suggesting as many as 6,000.
This was the first time that Caesar had lost a pitched battle in Gaul and one of the very
few battles that he would lose in his military career. Vercingetorix had proved himself to
be a deadly opponent and was able to use Roman tactics and strategy against Caesar.
To make matters worse for Caesar, his political power in Rome was also beginning to fracture,
as in 53 BC Crassus was captured and killed after the disastrous Battle of Carrhae. Without
Crassus, Pompey and Caesar had no counterbalance, and were now in direct opposition as the two
most powerful men in Rome. Caesar would now be forced to face his two greatest opponents
simultaneously; the talented, brave and cunning Vercingetorix in Gaul, and one of the greatest
generals of the ancient world, Pompey, in Rome.
We will talk about this struggle in the next episodes, so make sure you are subscribed
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