The Song dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279.
The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne
of the Later Zhou, ending the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. The Song often came
into conflict with the contemporaneous Liao, Western Xia and Jin dynasties to its north.
It was eventually conquered by the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty.
The Song government was the first in world history to issue banknotes or true paper money
nationally and the first Chinese government to establish a permanent standing navy. This
dynasty also saw the first known use of gunpowder, as well as the first discernment of true north
using a compass.
The Song dynasty is divided into two distinct periods: Northern Song and Southern Song.
During the Northern Song , the Song capital was in the northern city of Bianjing and the
dynasty controlled most of what is now Eastern China. The Southern Song refers to the period
after the Song lost control of its northern half to the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty in the
Jin–Song Wars. During this time, the Song court retreated south of the Yangtze and established
its capital at Lin'an . Although the Song dynasty had lost control of the traditional
"birthplace of Chinese civilization" along the Yellow River, the Song economy was still
strong, as the Southern Song empire contained a large population and productive agricultural
land. The Southern Song dynasty considerably bolstered its naval strength to defend its
waters and land borders and to conduct maritime missions abroad. To repel the Jin, and later
the Mongols, the Song developed revolutionary new military technology augmented by the use
of gunpowder.
In 1234, the Jin dynasty was conquered by the Mongols, who took control of northern
China, maintaining uneasy relations with the Southern Song. Möngke Khan, the fourth Great
Khan of the Mongol Empire, died in 1259 while besieging the mountain castle Diaoyucheng,
Chongqing. His younger brother Kublai Khan was proclaimed the new Great Khan, though
his claim was only partially recognized by the Mongols in the west. In 1271, Kublai Khan
proclaimed himself Emperor of China and established the Yuan dynasty. After two decades of sporadic
warfare, Kublai Khan's armies conquered the Song dynasty in 1279, after the Southern Song
suffered military defeat in the Battle of Yamen. The Mongol invasion eventually led
to a Chinese reunification under the Yuan dynasty.
The population of China doubled in size during the 9th, 10th and 11th centuries. This growth
was made possible by expanded rice cultivation in central and southern Song, the use of early-ripening
rice from south-east and southern Asia, and the production of widespread food surpluses.
The Northern Song census recorded 20 million households, double of the Han and Tang dynasties.
It is estimated that the Northern Song had a population of 90 million people, and 200
million by the time of the Ming dynasty. This dramatic increase of population fomented an
economic revolution in pre-modern China. The expansion of the population, growth of cities,
and the emergence of a national economy led to the gradual withdrawal of the central government
from direct involvement in economic affairs. The lower gentry assumed a larger role in
grassroots administration and local affairs. Appointed officials in county and provincial
centers relied upon the scholarly gentry for their services, sponsorship, and local supervision.
Social life during the Song was vibrant. Citizens gathered to view and trade precious artworks,
the populace intermingled at public festivals and private clubs, and cities had lively entertainment
quarters. The spread of literature and knowledge was enhanced by the rapid expansion of woodblock
printing and the 11th-century invention of movable-type printing. Technology, science,
philosophy, mathematics, and engineering flourished over the course of the Song. Philosophers
such as Cheng Yi and Zhu Xi reinvigorated Confucianism with new commentary, infused
with Buddhist ideals, and emphasized a new organization of classic texts that brought
out the core doctrine of Neo-Confucianism. Although the institution of the civil service
examinations had existed since the Sui dynasty, it became much more prominent in the Song
period. The officials who gained power by succeeding in the imperial examination became
a leading factor in the shift from a military-aristocratic elite to a scholar-bureaucratic elite.
History Northern Song, 960–1127
After usurping the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty, Emperor Taizu of Song spent sixteen
years conquering the rest of China, reuniting much of the territory that had once belonged
to the Han and Tang empires and ending the upheaval of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms
period. In Kaifeng, he established a strong central government over the empire. The establishment
of this capital marked the start of the Northern Song period. He ensured administrative stability
by promoting the civil service examination system of drafting state bureaucrats by skill
and merit and promoted projects that ensured efficiency in communication throughout the
empire. In one such project, cartographers created detailed maps of each province and
city that were then collected in a large atlas. Emperor Taizu also promoted groundbreaking
scientific and technological innovations by supporting works like the astronomical clock
tower designed and built by the engineer Zhang Sixun.
The Song court maintained diplomatic relations with Chola India, the Fatimid Caliphate of
Egypt, Srivijaya, the Kara-Khanid Khanate of Central Asia, the Goryeo kingdom in Korea,
and other countries that were also trade partners with Japan. Chinese records even mention an
embassy from the ruler of "Fu lin" , Michael VII Doukas, and its arrival in 1081. However,
China's closest neighbouring states had the greatest impact on its domestic and foreign
policy. From its inception under Taizu, the Song dynasty alternated between warfare and
diplomacy with the ethnic Khitans of the Liao dynasty in the northeast and with the Tanguts
of the Western Xia in the northwest. The Song dynasty used military force in an attempt
to quell the Liao dynasty and to recapture the Sixteen Prefectures, a territory under
Khitan control since 938 that was traditionally considered to be part of China proper . Song
forces were repulsed by the Liao forces, who engaged in aggressive yearly campaigns into
Northern Song territory until 1005, when the signing of the Shanyuan Treaty ended these
northern border clashes. The Song were forced to provide tribute to the Khitans, although
this did little damage to the Song economy since the Khitans were economically dependent
upon importing massive amounts of goods from the Song. More significantly, the Song state
recognized the Liao state as its diplomatic equal. The Song created an extensive defensive
forest along the Song-Liao border to thwart potential Khitan cavalry attacks.
The Song dynasty managed to win several military victories over the Tanguts in the early 11th
century, culminating in a campaign led by the polymath scientist, general, and statesman
Shen Kuo . However, this campaign was ultimately a failure due to a rival military officer
of Shen disobeying direct orders, and the territory gained from the Western Xia was
eventually lost. The Song fought against the Vietnamese kingdom of Đại Việt twice,
first conflict in 981 and later a significant war from 1075 to 1077 over a border dispute
and the Song's severing of commercial relations with Đại Việt. After the Vietnamese forces
inflicted heavy damages in a raid on Guangxi, the Song commander Guo Kui penetrated as far
as Thăng Long . Heavy losses on both sides prompted the Vietnamese commander Thường
Kiệt to make peace overtures, allowing both sides to withdraw from the war effort; captured
territories held by both Song and Vietnamese were mutually exchanged in 1082, along with
prisoners of war. During the 11th century, political rivalries
divided members of the court due to the ministers' differing approaches, opinions, and policies
regarding the handling of the Song's complex society and thriving economy. The idealist
Chancellor, Fan Zhongyan , was the first to receive a heated political backlash when he
attempted to institute the Qingli Reforms, which included measures such as improving
the recruitment system of officials, increasing the salaries for minor officials, and establishing
sponsorship programs to allow a wider range of people to be well educated and eligible
for state service.
After Fan was forced to step down from his office, Wang Anshi became Chancellor of the
imperial court. With the backing of Emperor Shenzong , Wang Anshi severely criticized
the educational system and state bureaucracy. Seeking to resolve what he saw as state corruption
and negligence, Wang implemented a series of reforms called the New Policies. These
involved land value tax reform, the establishment of several government monopolies, the support
of local militias, and the creation of higher standards for the Imperial examination to
make it more practical for men skilled in statecraft to pass.
The reforms created political factions in the court. Wang Anshi's "New Policies Group"
, also known as the "Reformers", were opposed by the ministers in the "Conservative" faction
led by the historian and Chancellor Sima Guang . As one faction supplanted another in the
majority position of the court ministers, it would demote rival officials and exile
them to govern remote frontier regions of the empire. One of the prominent victims of
the political rivalry, the famous poet and statesman Su Shi , was jailed and eventually
exiled for criticizing Wang's reforms.
While the central Song court remained politically divided and focused upon its internal affairs,
alarming new events to the north in the Liao state finally came to its attention. The Jurchen,
a subject tribe of the Liao, rebelled against them and formed their own state, the Jin dynasty
. The Song official Tong Guan advised Emperor Huizong to form an alliance with the Jurchens,
and the joint military campaign under this Alliance Conducted at Sea toppled and completely
conquered the Liao dynasty by 1125. During the joint attack, the Song's northern expedition
army removed the defensive forest along the Song-Liao border.
However, the poor performance and military weakness of the Song army was observed by
the Jurchens, who immediately broke the alliance, beginning the Jin–Song Wars of 1125 and
1127. Because of the removal of the previous defensive forest, the Jin army marched quickly
across the North China Plain to Kaifeng. In the Jingkang Incident during the latter invasion,
the Jurchens captured not only the capital, but the retired emperor Huizong, his successor
Emperor Qinzong, and most of the Imperial court.
The remaining Song forces regrouped under the self-proclaimed Emperor Gaozong of Song
and withdrew south of the Yangtze to establish a new capital at Lin'an . The Jurchen conquest
of North China and shift of capitals from Kaifeng to Lin'an was the dividing line between
the Northern and Southern Song dynasties.
After their fall to the Jin, the Song lost control of North China. Now occupying what
has been traditionally known as "China Proper," the Jin regarded themselves the rightful rulers
of China. The Jin later chose earth as their dynastic element and yellow as their royal
color. According to the theory of the Five Elements , the earth element follows the fire,
the dynastic element of the Song, in the sequence of elemental creation. Therefore, their ideological
move showed that the Jin considered Song reign in China complete, with the Jin replacing
the Song as the rightful rulers of China Proper.
Southern Song, 1127–1279 Although weakened and pushed south beyond
the Huai River, the Southern Song found new ways to bolster its strong economy and defend
itself against the Jin dynasty. It had able military officers such as Yue Fei and Han
Shizhong. The government sponsored massive shipbuilding and harbor improvement projects,
and the construction of beacons and seaport warehouses to support maritime trade abroad,
including at the major international seaports, such as Quanzhou, Guangzhou, and Xiamen, that
were sustaining China's commerce.
To protect and support the multitude of ships sailing for maritime interests into the waters
of the East China Sea and Yellow Sea , Southeast Asia, the Indian Ocean, and the Red Sea, it
was necessary to establish an official standing navy. The Song dynasty therefore established
China's first permanent navy in 1132, with a headquarters at Dinghai. With a permanent
navy, the Song were prepared to face the naval forces of the Jin on the Yangtze River in
1161, in the Battle of Tangdao and the Battle of Caishi. During these battles the Song navy
employed swift paddle wheel driven naval vessels armed with traction trebuchet catapults aboard
the decks that launched gunpowder bombs. Although the Jin forces commanded by Wanyan Liang boasted
70,000 men on 600 warships, and the Song forces only 3,000 men on 120 warships, the Song dynasty
forces were victorious in both battles due to the destructive power of the bombs and
the rapid assaults by paddle wheel ships. The strength of the navy was heavily emphasized
after that. A century after the navy was founded it had grown in size to 52,000 fighting marines.
The Song government confiscated portions of land owned by the landed gentry in order to
raise revenue for these projects, an act which caused dissension and loss of loyalty amongst
leading members of Song society but did not stop the Song's defensive preparations. Financial
matters were made worse by the fact that many wealthy, land-owning families—some of which
had officials working for the government—used their social connections with those in office
in order to obtain tax-exempt status.
Although the Song dynasty was able to hold back the Jin, a new foe came to power over
the steppe, deserts, and plains north of the Jin dynasty. The Mongols, led by Genghis Khan
, initially invaded the Jin dynasty in 1205 and 1209, engaging in large raids across its
borders, and in 1211 an enormous Mongol army was assembled to invade the Jin. The Jin dynasty
was forced to submit and pay tribute to the Mongols as vassals; when the Jin suddenly
moved their capital city from Beijing to Kaifeng, the Mongols saw this as a revolt. Under the
leadership of Ögedei Khan , both the Jin dynasty and Western Xia dynasty were conquered
by Mongol forces in 1233/34.
The Mongols were allied with the Song, but this alliance was broken when the Song recaptured
the former imperial capitals of Kaifeng, Luoyang, and Chang'an at the collapse of the Jin dynasty.
After the first Mongol invasion of Vietnam in 1258, Mongol general Uriyangkhadai attacked
Guangxi from Hanoi as part of a coordinated Mongol attack in 1259 with armies attacking
in Sichuan under Mongol leader Möngke Khan and other Mongol armies attacking in modern-day
Shandong and Henan. On August 11, 1259, Möngke Khan died during the siege of Diaoyu Castle
in Chongqing.
Möngke's death and the ensuing succession crisis prompted Hulagu Khan to pull the bulk
of the Mongol forces out of the Middle East where they were poised to fight the Egyptian
Mamluks . Although Hulagu was allied with Kublai Khan, his forces were unable to help
in the assault against the Song, due to Hulagu's war with the Golden Horde.
Kublai continued the assault against the Song, gaining a temporary foothold on the southern
banks of the Yangtze. By the winter of 1259, Uriyangkhadai's army fought its way north
to meet Kublai Khan's army, which was besieging Ezhou in Hubei. Kublai made preparations to
take Ezhou, but a pending civil war with his brother Ariq Böke—a rival claimant to the
Mongol Khaganate—forced Kublai to move back north with the bulk of his forces. In Kublai's
absence, the Song forces were ordered by Chancellor Jia Sidao to make an immediate assault and
succeeded in pushing the Mongol forces back to the northern banks of the Yangtze. There
were minor border skirmishes until 1265, when Kublai won a significant battle in Sichuan.
From 1268 to 1273, Kublai blockaded the Yangtze River with his navy and besieged Xiangyang,
the last obstacle in his way to invading the rich Yangtze River basin. Kublai officially
declared the creation of the Yuan dynasty in 1271. In 1275, a Song force of 130,000
troops under Chancellor Jia Sidao was defeated by Kublai's newly appointed commander-in-chief,
general Bayan. By 1276, most of the Song territory had been captured by Yuan forces, including
the capital Lin'an.
In the Battle of Yamen on the Pearl River Delta in 1279, the Yuan army, led by the general
Zhang Hongfan, finally crushed the Song resistance. The last remaining ruler, the 13-year-old
emperor Emperor Huaizong of Song, committed suicide, along with Prime Minister Lu Xiufu
and 1300 members of the royal clan. On Kublai's orders, carried out by his commander Bayan,
the rest of the former imperial family of Song were unharmed; the deposed Emperor Gong
was demoted, being given the title 'Duke of Ying', but was eventually exiled to Tibet
where he took up a monastic life. The former emperor would eventually be forced to commit
suicide under the orders of Kublai's great-great grandson, Gegeen Khan, out of fear that Emperor
Gong would stage a coup to restore his reign. Other members of the Song Imperial Family
continued to live in the Yuan dynasty, including Zhao Mengfu and Zhao Yong.