The Allied invasion of Vichy French North Africa in 1942,
known as Operation Torch, was the first mass involvement of U.S. troops in the
European-North African Theatre and the first major airborne assault carried out by the U.S.
This was a complex and daring operation. It intended to draw Axis forces away from the Eastern
Front. The goal was to relieve pressure on the Soviet Union, adding additional political tension.
The American troops were led by the warship USS Ranger, as well as four escort carriers.
Morocco's defenses included French destroyers,
submarines, and a rather old battleship that eventually sank. The French equipment was
being manned by Vichy French forces that collaborated politically with the Germans
but strained to stay militarily neutral in the face of Nazi occupation and Allied encroachment.
In a surprising and quite ironic turn of events, they also had more than a hundred American
built planes, such as Douglas DB-7s, Martin 167 Baltimore light bombers,
and Curtiss H-75A fighters, that had been supplied to the fallen French republic.
In this operation, American planes would be fighting American planes.
The British initially felt that the American landing in northern Europe
was premature and would eventually lead to disaster at that stage of the war.
However, the invasion of Vichy French North Africa accomplished much for the Allies.
The operation allowed American and British forces to seize the offensive after three arduous years
of German and Italian troops dictating events' tempo. It changed the course of the war.
This iconic battle of World War 2 turned out to be more important than it initially was thought.
Vichy France
In 1942, less than a year after the US joined World War 2, the Allies were planning an
Anglo-American invasion of French North Africa. At the time, this territory was governed by the
Vichy French. The authoritarian Vichy regime had formed when the Third French Republic dissolved
after refusing to sign an armistice following the German invasion and occupation of France. Although
collaborators with the Nazis, the Vichy attempted to stay neutral in the military conflict.
To assess whether or not the invasion would have a chance at succeeding,
the American consul in Algiers, Robert Daniel Murphy, was commanded to acquire
intel from members of the Vichy French government.
After his mission, Murphy offered evidence suggesting that the French wouldn't resist the
landings nor fight back since their allyship with the Nazis was uncertain and rocky.
Furthermore, the French commanders Murphy contacted were eager to assist the Allies
in their liberation and met with a senior Allied commander to discuss their demands.
After the Allies agreed to their requests, General Dwight Eisenhower,
then supreme commander of the Allied forces in the European Theater, moved forward with the plan.
Initially dubbed Operation Gymnast, Operation Torch set up its headquarters in Gibraltar.
The amphibious landings would be managed by the Allied Naval commander of the Expeditionary Force,
Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham. The deputy would be Vice-Admiral Sir Bertram Ramsay.
For the attack to be successful, a correct assessment of the Vichy forces in Morocco,
Algeria, and Tunisia was essential. The Allies needed to secure their cooperation
rather than their resistance.
On the other side, the Germans demonstrated their backing of the Vichy French with aerial support.
Several Luftwaffe bombers were ready for anti-shipping strikes
against Allied ports in Algiers and all along the North African coast.
Allegiances among the Vichy forces were divided.
Operation Torch
At the beginning of November, the U.S. and its Allied troops traveled through dangerous waters
filled with lurking German U-Boats to reach Morocco's coast.
In Operation Torch, the American flotilla included the aircraft carrier USS Ranger
and four new escort carriers: USS Santee, USS Suwanee, USS Sangamon, and USS Chenango.
These carriers transported 109 F4F-4 Wildcat fighters,
36 Douglas Scout Bomber Douglas-3 Dauntless dive bombers, and 27 Grumman TBF-1
Avenger torpedo bombers for a surprise amphibious attack on the Vichy French.
Morocco's defenses included a squadron of French destroyers, a couple of submarines,
and the subpar battleship Jean Bart. But, in one of the most ironic turns of World War 2,
they were also supported by a total of 208 aircraft, of which nearly half were American.
Their fleet included Douglas DB-7s, Martin 167 Baltimore bombers, and Curtiss H-75A fighters,
the export versions of the P-36A Hawk.
The British formation included seven carriers in three task forces
to cover two separate landing areas along the North African Coast.
For most of the Allied crews, this was their first official combat operation.
Many of the Vichy fliers, however, were combat veterans.
Pro-Allied General Antoine Béthouart and his men attempted a coup d'etat in Casablanca
against the regime of Vichy General Charles Noguès on the eve of the attack.
But the attack failed, and thus, Noguès was alerted about the upcoming invasion.
As the Allies neared the North African coast on the day of the operation, the skies were quiet.
The French troops were ready for their enemies. In a dire miscalculation,
the Allies underestimated the willingness of the
French to fight and failed to soften up the coastal defenses prior to the assault.
Wildcats vs. Hawks
Operation Torch began on Sunday, November 8, 1942. It would become the first mass involvement of U.S.
troops in the European-North African Theatre and the United States' first major airborne assault.
At dawn, the American forces landed at Casablanca.
Two of the British troops landed at Oran and Algiers. Simultaneously, the third task force
covered the Mediterranean ocean, mainly to defend it if the Italians attacked.
The Americans were welcomed by the Vichy French with open gun barrels. Coastal defenses
and Vichy Bombers attempted to destroy their carriers and troops descending on the coast.
Just before dawn, five French D-520 fighters tried to destroy an American landing craft
carrying several Vought OS2U Kingfisher floatplanes. But their attempt was
unsuccessful thanks to a group of U.S Navy F4F Wildcat fighters that protected them.
Eighteen F4F Wildcat fighters from Fighting Squadron 4, also known as the Red Rippers,
strafed several Vichy DB-7 bombers at the Cazes airfield.
In the process, they were engaged by 10 D-520s and six American-made Hawk 75s.
Surprisingly, in Casablanca, American planes were engaging with other American planes.
On November 8, Four American Wildcats were shot down by the French.
Thankfully all the pilots survived and were released. Meanwhile,
six French Hawks and three Dewoitines 520s were destroyed by the Americans.
The American Wildcats also attacked the Cazes and Mediouna airfields,
where they destroyed several more Dewoitines 520s.
Two days later, on November 10, American fire also destroyed two more French fighter planes.
That same day, Admiral Francois Darlan, commander of the Vichy forces in North Africa, agreed to a
ceasefire. In the meantime, Allied troops advanced east to meet Germans in battle in Tunisia.
Despite encountering initial opposition, the Allies were correct.
The Vichy's alliance with the Nazis was quite fragile - especially in North Africa.
The Vichy French surrendered on November 11. That same day, the German u-boat U-173 arrived,
creating trouble by torpedoing the USS Hambleton, USS Winooski, and the troopship USS Joseph Hewes.
A day later, another German U-boat torpedoed the troopships USS Tasker H. Bliss,
USS Hugh L. Scott, and USS Edward Rutledge.
In retaliation, U.S Navy destroyers sunk another patrolling German U-boat on November 16.
Some of the French D.520 units are said to have flown combat air patrols with
the Allies during the invasion, but they did not engage in combat. Since their radios were
incompatible with the Allied aircraft models, the French fighter units began to switch over
to American and British fighters as the North African Vichy forces turned to the Allied cause.
Aftermath
The Vichy French Air force suffered significant damage during Operation Torch.
It also cost the lives of ten brave men from the American Task Force 34.
Although the French battleship, the Jean Bart, was severely damaged,
it was eventually repaired and remained in Casablanca until the war ended.
Many of the Navy fliers who fought in Torch went on to serve in the Pacific theaters.
Some even saw direct combat with the Japanese. The operation firmly established the aircraft carrier,
planes, and crew in the close air support role, ready on arrival and close to the action.
Several of the Task Force 34 pilots from Torch also became ace's before the war ended in 1945.
These men's names were Blackburn, Wordell, Franger, and Menard.
The Torch's Impact
After Operation Torch, the Vichy French negotiated a truce and eventually transitioned peacefully to
become aligned with (although not a part of) the exiled Free French government. Many of the
North African Vichy air units fought valiantly against Axis forces for the remainder of the war.
The operation's success was essential for expelling Germans from North Africa. It also
let the French people know that they were not alone nor forgotten and were considered Allies.
Despite many positive results, Torch fell short of its many expectations.
Enraged at the result and the wavering of Vichy cooperation,
Hitler would launch the invasion of what remained of unoccupied France. Germany would
also order the Vichy military disbanded, but not before the Vichy would scuttle the French fleet.
At the tactical level, the assault on the Moroccan coasts also revealed
severe problems with the logistical, communication, and command-and-control
approaches the Navy and Army employed for this sizable amphibious operation.
However, the experience the Allies earned from
this operation would later serve for more challenging battles.
Overall, though, Torch's influence was enormous. It was, in a sense,
one of the most critical strategic decisions that Allies made.
After taking Casablanca, the Moroccan city became an Allied
base that was fundamental for the war's remainder.
This was also the first time the Allies used joint planning to forge a significant operation,
setting the pattern for future invasions, such as the iconic landings in France of 1944.
At the same time, it allowed the U.S to show its immense industrial and manpower resources.
These were an essential part of the iconic air battles that characterized
the brave Allied Campaigns of the war's late era.
In January 1943, President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Prime Minister Winston Churchill
famously met at Casablanca for a military conference that would decide that only the
unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany would be an acceptable end to the war.