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In December 1805, at the Battle of Austerlitz, Napoleon Bonaparte, Emperor of the French,
won a crushing victory against the joint forces of Austria and Russia.
Napoleon now dominated Europe – able to hand out spoils as he saw fit.
In February 1806, he sent an army led by Marshal Massena to overthrow the king of Naples, who’d
dared to side with his enemies, and gave his throne to his own brother, Joseph, instead.
Another brother, Louis, was made King of Holland.
His German allies, Bavaria and Würtemberg, were elevated to the status of kingdoms.
While Napoleon made himself ‘Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine’ – a new
alliance of German states, that would contribute 60,000 troops to his army.
In recognition of the new reality, Emperor Francis of Austria formally dissolved the
Holy Roman Empire - founded by Charlemagne a thousand years before, but now without influence
or purpose.
Austria had been humiliated; France remained at war with Britain, Sweden and Russia.
But in the summer of 1806, all eyes were on Prussia.
The Prussian king, Frederick William III, regarded Napoleon with deep mistrust, and
had been about to join the Coalition against him when news arrived of its disastrous defeat
at Austerlitz.
He was heavily influenced by his wife, the celebrated and popular Queen Louise, who detested
France and Napoleon.
She led the influential ‘War Party’ at the Prussian court.
Matters came to a head over Hanover – a German state which had belonged to British
king George III… been occupied by the French… and given by Napoleon to Prussia, as compensation
for other territorial changes.
Now the Prussians learned that Napoleon had secretly offered to give Hanover back to Britain
in exchange for peace.
Frederick’s advisors now persuaded him that war was the only honourable course.
But Prussia then made a basic strategic blunder… sending an ultimatum to Napoleon without consulting
its new allies in the Fourth Coalition.
Their forces were too far away to help Prussia…
Who would now face Napoleon’s Grande Armée with just the small state of Saxony for support.
In 1806, the Prussian army had a fearsome reputation, that dated back 50 years to the
reign of Frederick the Great.
Napoleon, a student of history, regarded it with respect.
But Prussia’s army had been allowed to rest on its laurels.
Its generals were old, its staff work hindered by bureaucracy and personal rivalries, its
movements ponderous and predictable.
Prussian soldiers, however, could be relied on to fight with pride and determination;
while Prussian cavalry was regarded as amongst the best in Europe.
In October 1806, Napoleon invaded Saxony with an army of 166,000 men and 256 guns.
Advancing in three columns, the French crossed the mountain forests of the Thüringer Wald,
along roads carefully reconnoitred by scouts and spies.
Napoleon intended to threaten Leipzig, and force a decisive battle with the Prussian
army, which he believed was near Gera.
The Prussians were in fact further west, concentrating near Erfurt, on the west bank of the River
Saale.
Its commander, the Duke of Brunswick, had hoped to threaten the flank of Napoleon’s
advance…
But wrongfooted by the speed of the French, he now ordered a retreat north to find a new
defensive line.
On 10th October, at Saalfeld, Marshal Lannes’ V Corps clashed with a Prussian advance guard
commanded by Prince Louis-Frederick, the king’s cousin.
The Prussian force was routed, and Prince Louis himself killed in combat with a Quartermaster
of the French 10th Hussars.
Three days later Lannes made contact with a large Prussian force near Jena, and sent
news to Napoleon.
The French Emperor, believing he’d found the main Prussian army, rapidly issued orders
for his corps to concentrate for battle at Jena.
Bernadotte’s I Corps and Davout’s III Corps were to cross the Saale and fall on
the Prussian flank from the north.
But Napoleon was wrong – Lannes faced a 35,000-strong Prussian rearguard commanded
by General Hohenlohe…
The main Prussian army, 52,000 men under the Duke of Brunswick, was further north, moving
straight into the path of Davout’s III Corps.
The Battle of Jena began at 6.30am on 14th October, in thick fog.
Marshal Lannes’ V Corps already had a toehold on the plateau west of the town and river.
His first task was to drive back the Prussians, and win room for the rest of the French army
– arriving by the hour - to deploy.
His infantry led the way, and fierce fighting broke out for the villages of Cospeda, Closewitz
and Lützeroda.
Meanwhile Augereau’s VII Corps advanced through a ravine, emerging onto the plateau
on Lannes’ left flank; while Soult’s IV Corps climbed steep tracks to form on his
right.
Napoleon joined Lannes in the centre of the battlefield, organising a 25-gun battery to
support the attack on Vierzehnheiligen.
The village was won, but then lost to a determined Prussian counterattack.
On the right, around 10am, Soult’s infantry secured Closewitz, but was counterattacked
on its right flank near Rödigen.
A decisive charge by Soult’s light cavalry drove off the Prussians - routing their infantry,
and capturing two enemy colours.
As VI Corps began to arrive on the plateau, its fearless but impetuous commander Marshal
Ney ignored orders, and dived into the fighting around Vierzehnheiligen, becoming briefly
cut off by a Prussian counterattack… and having to be rescued by Guard cavalry.
General Hohenlohe was expecting the arrival of 15,000 more troops under General Rüchel
at any moment.
Until then, he remained largely inactive, shoring up his line and ordering limited counterattacks.
But he had run out of time.
Napoleon had begun the day with just 25,000 men.
By 12.30, a steady stream of reinforcements had brought his strength up to 96,000.
As the Emperor rode past the Imperial Guard, one young soldier, eager to be sent into action,
called out ‘Forward!’
Napoleon stopped and demanded to know who’d spoken, then rebuked the soldier as a beardless
youth, who ought not to offer advice until he too had commanded in 30 battles.
But the moment had arrived.
Although the Guard, to its frustration, remained in reserve, the other French corps were ordered
forward in a general attack.
The Prussian army began to give ground – at first it kept its discipline, but then disintegrated
in a general rout.
Murat’s cavalry were launched in pursuit, riding down and sabreing hundreds of fleeing
Prussians.
General Rüchel’s two divisions finally arrived - at the worst possible moment.
They briefly held up V Corps’ advance, but were soon outflanked, broken up by cannon
fire, and charged down by French cuirassiers.
Meanwhile, 12 miles to the north near Auerstädt, Marshal Davout was marching southwest, expecting
to fall on the Prussian left wing at Jena.
Instead, he encountered the Duke of Brunswick’s main Prussian army, heading north to take
up new positions.
Davout’s III Corps, 27,000 men and 48 guns, was about to face odds of two-to-one… while
Bernadotte’s I Corps, which had orders to support Davout, was nowhere to be seen.
Davout, nicknamed the Iron Marshal, showed no signs of alarm.
He formed his first division into a defensive line centred on the village of Hassenhausen,
his infantry forming squares to repel a series of cavalry charges by General Blücher’s
Advance Guard.
His other two infantry divisions arrived to strengthen the line, standing firm in the
face of repeated Prussian attacks.
But Prussian movements were slow and poorly co-ordinated, nor did they use their numerical
advantage to try and outflank Davout.
At a crucial moment, the Duke of Brunswick was shot through the eyes - a wound that proved
fatal.
King Frederick William himself took command.
Several Prussian units remained uncommitted.
But the king, convinced he faced the main French army under Napoleon, dithered….
Around 12.15 Marshal Davout counterattacked – the Prussian army turned, and fled.
Davout had won a stunning victory against the odds – but
at a heavy price.
His corps suffered 25% casualties – one man in four killed or wounded – while inflicting
twice as many losses on the Prussians.
When news reached Napoleon that Marshal Davout had engaged and defeated the main Prussian
army, he reacted first with disbelief, then heaped praise upon the ‘Iron Marshal’,
later awarding him the title ‘Duke of Auerstädt’.
Marshal Bernadotte, in contrast, was nearly court-martialled for failing to support Davout.
Napoleon’s army began a masterful pursuit of the beaten Prussians, giving them no time
to regather their strength.
Two weeks after the twin battles of Jena-Auerstädt, Napoleon’s troops, led by Davout’s heroic
III Corps, entered Berlin.
The next day General Hohenlohe surrendered at Prenzlau...
At Lübeck, General Blücher and 20,000 Prussians were driven out of the city in heavy fighting,
and forced to surrender…
While 25,000 Prussians besieged at Magdeburg surrendered to Marshal Ney.
Prussia’s army had been devastated by a Napoleonic blitzkrieg:
In just 33 days, Prussia had lost 20,000 dead, 140,000 prisoners, 800 guns and 250 standards.
It was a humiliation that proud Prussians like General Blücher would neither forget,
nor forgive.
Unlike Saxony, King Frederick William refused to make peace with Napoleon.
He continued to hold out in East Prussia, trusting in the approaching Russian armies
to rescue his kingdom.
Despite another glorious victory for Napoleon and the Grande Armée, the war was not won
yet…
Napoleon Bonaparte was one of the greatest military commanders of all time – but who
were some of the worst?
Find out with the Great Courses Plus lecture series, ‘History’s Great Military Blunders
and the Lessons They Teach’ – a litany of poor leadership, misconceived strategy
and overconfidence - even Napoleon himself makes an appearance.
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