>>BIANCA JONES MARLIN: Thank you.
Thank you.
I'd like to thank the Museum of Natural History for having me tonight, and thank you all for
coming out in the rain to hear a little bit about love.
Hopefully you'll find it interesting.
I know it's around Valentine's Day so you're interested in talking about love with your
partner.
But I'm going to talk about babies.
My research aims to bridge the gap between nature and nurture.
Things that are innate, things that we are born with, versus things that were learned,
and what biology gives us versus the way we can adapt to biology and how we can learn
and adapt in an environment.
Why is this essential?
It's essential for our survival.
And not just our survival as individuals but the survival of our lineage, of our genetics,
usually through our offspring.
I study how mothers interact with their offspring for their offspring's survival.
When a mother first gives birth, the smell of her baby's head, the feeling of its velvety
skin and the sounds that it emits set the mother in a particular type of mood.
Babies have a limited ability to interact with their caregivers.
They can do one of a few things to let you know, us as caregivers know, how they're feeling.
One example is here.
[RECORDING OF YOUNG CHILDREN LAUGHING]
>>MARLIN: So, you know that baby's enjoying her time.
And another way babies communicate is through this:
[RECORDING OF BABY CRYING]
>>MARLIN: I hope you're asking yourself, Who would record this poor baby crying instead
of going to pick them up?
That's my daughter.
In the same manner that offspring make cues that we as caregivers take care of them, mice
do the same thing.
Mice are my model organism that I use to study how brains change.
These are the mice babies that I use.
They're called mouse pups.
Yeah, they're super cute.
And when they get cold, they emit something called an ultrasonic vocalization, and that's
shown here.
It's plotted frequency over time.
Are there any musicians in the room?
Would you like to sing this?
You can't.
It's ultrasonic, which means it's above our hearing range, so you can't really hear it.
But it's plotted frequency over time, so if I were to sing it downgraded, it would be
like:
[MARLIN MAKES COOING NOISE]
>>MARLIN: And those sounds alert the mom, so when she's in the nest and if pup gets
out of the nest, she'll orient toward the pup, she'll pick it up and she'll bring it
back to the nest.
I'll show you an example of that here.
Virgin females, however—animals that have never given birth to a pup—won't perform
this task.
They'll ignore the pup, and sometimes they'll cannibalize the pup.
I'm not going to show you that.
And herein lies the question: How does an existing social cue—the sound of a baby
crying—that is consistent between both groups gain relevance after an experience?
And this experience is the experience of motherhood.
We had a candidate neuromodulator, a candidate chemical that we wanted to check out, and
that was the love drug, oxytocin.
Oxytocin's released from a part of the brain called the paraventricular nucleus of the
hypothalamus.
If everyone can take their left hand and put it on their nose and their right hand and
put it right on top of their ear—this is a great picture—where the two fingers meet,
that's where your paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus that projects to the pituitary
gland is.
That's where your oxytocin's released.
That's where the magic happens.
In mice, who also have a paraventricular nucleus of their hypothalamus, oxytocin's released
and can get through the body.
It's released through a myriad of ways.
During sex, it's released during orgasms.
It's shown to increase trust and generosity.
It's also important for pair bonding.
Here's an example of a vole, and the way oxytocin operates in the brain of a vole is very intriguing.
There are two species of vole: prairie voles and Montane voles.
Here's an example of a prairie vole.
They're monogamous, so after they find a mate, the male decides to stay with the female and
they raise children together.
The Montane voles, however, they're polygamous, so they go from female to female, and they
don't stay with their litter.
What's interesting here is their brains respond to oxytocin differently, which makes it such
a candidate molecule for us to study.
Oxytocin is also essential for the birthing process.
If anyone's ever been induced, they give the correlate, which is pitocin, in the hospital
to induce birth.
It causes uterine contractions and it causes milk letdown, so it's essential for breastfeeding
and continually released during breastfeeding for pair bonding.
It's also released during touch and eye contact and prolonged hugs.
Given such a beautiful molecule, I found it really interesting when I was looking up information
when I first started this project that showed that the hype about oxytocin is dumb and dangerous.
Ed Yong, who is a very prominent neuroscience writer, called it oxytocin-schmoxytocin and
said it was over-rated.
I also found you can find it on Amazon.
Don't find it on Amazon.
It's not really oxytocin.
But I was a little bit perturbed going into this question, wanting to use oxytocin as
a target molecule but realizing that there's not much work done on how oxytocin really
works.
So, I decided to address the hard science of oxytocin.
And so, today I'm going to talk to you about three things that oxytocin does, where it
works in the brain, on what time scale in mice, and how it actually changes the brain
to make sub-par caregivers better caregivers.
First, let's check out where.
I hypothesized that it would be in the hearing centers of the brain, given that when a baby
cries, the mother's first reaction is to orient towards the pup, so maybe the hearing centers
of the brain, called the primary auditory cortex, were really important in this discovery.
Here's an example of the auditory cortex here, circled in the hearing area of the schematic
of the brain.
In the brain, we have neurons, and these neurons respond to different molecules.
Oxytocin, for example.
Caffeine.
THC.
Oxytocin is also not OxyContin.
It's different.
I'm going to point that out.
And so, these neurons in the brain respond and fire when certain drugs hit them.
How does that happen?
It happens because each neuron has a specific receptor on it.
The receptors take the molecule, attach it to the neuron, and that allows the neuron
to fire, to propagate and to have a conversation with the other neurons in their milieu.
Because we were able to dabble with the oxytocin receptor, what we did is we made all the cells
red.
Before we were able to make the cells red, we couldn't find an oxytocin receptor.
We couldn't find an oxytocin receptor antibody, which means I can use a drug to add it to
the oxytocin receptor, and it will turn the cell red.
So, we didn't know where oxytocin was, so we created a novel antibody shown here on
this slide.
Each one of the cells—the dots here are cells, neurons.
These are real neurons in the brain.
Well, out of the brain because I took a picture of them.
They're stained with red, which means they're oxytocin receptive.
What we saw, which was really surprising, was that there are more oxytocin receptors
in the left side of the brain than the right side of the brain when it came to the auditory
cortex.
Why we were so excited about this is because it was the first opportunity to show lateralization
to auditory cortex.
Why is this exciting?
Because in humans, we have lateralization.
The Broca/Wernicke area is usually found on the left side of right-handed people, and
that's an area for communication.
So, we may have found a locus for communication, given that oxytocin is on the left auditory
cortex more than the right.
We also looked at different types of cells in the auditory cortex.
They are excitatory cells and inhibitory cells, and I would think of it like this: Excitatory
cells are like the kids in the front of the bus that are making a whole lot of noise and
they're really excited, and then—oh, I guess in the back of the bus they make noise.
I haven't taken the bus in a long time.
The kids in the back of the bus make a lot of noise, and the nuns in the front of the
bus—I also went to Catholic school—the nuns in the front of the bus are telling everyone
to quiet down, and those are the inhibitory cells.
So, you have the people that are making the noise and the people that are telling other
people to quiet down, and that's how balancing happens in the brain.
We showed that there are oxytocin receptors on both the loud cells and also the quieting
cells.
The loud cells are in green, and the quiet cells are in red.
Oxytocin can both make things spike more or spike less, which means it has a lot of control
in the brain.
When does it work?
I did an experiment where I have a pup in a chamber.
The pup is shown here, the little green pup.
I put a virgin animal that's not cannibalizing but will ignore the pup, and I wanted to—a
lot of screening went through that experiment.
And I wanted to see how the virgin would interact with the pup.
When she didn't pick it up—which she normally didn't—I then treated her with oxytocin.
I did it through something called an intraperitoneal injection, which means I'm injecting it into
her body.
I also used something called optogenetics, "opto" meaning "light," "genetics" meaning
"changing the genetics."
What optogenetics does is we have an animal that allows neurons to fire when we shine
light in the brain.
We genetically modified it so that every time we shine light, the neurons fire, so I'm releasing
endogenous oxytocin, oxytocin from the animal's own body, and using that to see the behavior.
I then put her in the chamber with the mom after she had the flood of oxytocin so she
can see how a real caregiver does it, and she can sit back and learn.
Here's an example of a video in which we have the blue light shining in the brain—you'll
see a fiber and a blue light shining in the brain—and this animal that originally was
not retrieving at all is all of a sudden retrieving very well, based on the release of oxytocin.
When we illuminated the left auditory cortex, we were able to get this behavior.
Just shining light in the left auditory cortex, the left hearing center, allowed for an animal
to become a better caregiver.
We then wanted to know how does this work.
What's changing in the brain to allow for a behavioral change?
In order to check that out, I did something called whole-cell in vivo physiology.
It's a whole mouthful, and it's actually a really hard technique, but I'm going to walk
you guys through it, so by the end you'll be whole-cell in vivo physiologists.
What I do is I have an animal who's anesthetized.
She's usually on a ketamine drip, in all truth.
We've given ketamine so she's not feeling any pain, but she can also still hear.
We play the pup call, and I record from a neuron in the brain to look at spiking activity
to see how the neuron's talking to its immediate neighbors.
How do you record from a very small—very small, 10 to 20 microns, very small—neuron
in the brain?
I take a glass pipette, pretty much like a glass straw, I heat it over a fire and I pull
it until the opening is about less than 10 microns, maybe in the order of five microns.
And then I do something really, really sophisticated: I take a tube, I stick it on the other end
of that pulled straw, and I take that part and I put it to my mouth, and then what I
do is I kiss it while it's in the brain until I find a cell and suck the cell onto the tip.
That's whole-cell in vivo physiology.
And once I'm able to kiss onto the cell so I can record from a single cell in the brain,
I can see spiking activity.
Because neurons are electrical and that's how they communicate with their neighbors.
I'm going to show you a few traces that I actually recorded from single neurons in alive
animals.
And as you can see here, there are three spikes that every time I play the pup call in a mother—this
is an anesthetized mother—we see a spike that happens at the same time.
That means that neuron is encoding a message.
Every one of these lines is a different time I play that call, and every time the neuron's
firing at the same exact time.
It's trying to tell their other neighbors something.
However, in a virgin animal, this is a different call because I use a call that makes the best
response.
In a naïve animal, we see spiking, but there's nothing that's time locked.
There's nothing that's actually encoding a message.
It's kind of just making noise.
However, after a virgin learns to retrieve just in the auditory neurons in the brain,
we start to see that time-locked response.
That neuron's firing and encoding a message.
And so, I wanted to ask, How am I making a virgin's brain into a mother's brain by adding
oxytocin?
And because of whole-cell physiology, we're able to answer that question.
I attached onto a cell in a virgin mouse.
I played the pup call, and I looked at the spikes that her neurons told me.
I then illuminated the area that I was recording from to release oxytocin endogenously, so
I'm using its own oxytocin from its own body in the area I'm recording from while playing
the pup call.
What we start to see is that the neuron starts to fire a lot more.
There's an increase in its excitability.
And after about three hours of recording from the cell, we start to see this time-locked
response.
We saw in real time how the brain changed from an inexperienced caregiver to an experienced
caregiver just in the hearing parts of the brain.
And so, I answered, Where is this happening?
In the auditory areas.
When is it happening?
Very quickly.
And how?
By changing the way the neurons fire in the brain to change the response to the pup call.
Finally, now if you search "oxytocin" on Google, you will get a lot less of, "It's trash,"
and "Oxytocin-schmoxytocin" because this study actually picked up a lot of good press, which
is really exciting for us as scientists to be able to illuminate some area that's unknown
prior and give some information to the bigger scientific community.
It was covered in National Geographic, in Science magazine, and also it got to the top
100 stories of 2015—thank you—further giving information for how oxytocin works.
And so, we looked at the natural oxytocin in the brain, but how the experience of hanging
out with a good mom actually makes it better.
We looked at how something that's innate, like giving birth, having a flood of oxytocin
and then being able to take care of your child works, but also, it can be learned when given
oxytocin.
So, there's a component that's innate and also a component that can be learned.
Something that biology gave us, but also something that you can adapt to, further building that
bridge.
And that bridge is for the survival of their offspring.
But when we take a step back and look at how oxytocin and mice can play a role in humanity,
I think it's really important to understand that mice have a certain level at which they
want to propagate their offspring, but we saw that virgins took care of pups that weren't
their own.
I think that's really important because it's not necessarily the propagation of your offspring,
but it's the propagation of their species.
I think that really applies to us as humans as well.
Some of the work that motivates the science that I do comes from these statistics.
Four out of seven children die a day from child neglect and abuse.
The average life expectancy is 20 years shorter.
The brains of neglected children have less white and grey matter.
When I read this number, I just cringe because the financial impact is enough to send one
child to college, and we all know how much college costs.
And so, these studies I think are really important.
But moreover, the reason why I think I'm so motivated to study how parental experiences
and how supporting parents and supporting offspring better supports humanity is because
of these two people and this precious child.
These are my parents, and that's me.
My parents have taught me a lot in life, but one of the most important things that motivates
my science is that they are my biological parents, but they were foster parents.
I grew up with foster brothers and sisters who came from other homes in which they weren't
honored, in which they were not treated well, and whose parents had a hard time taking care
of them.
And so, to grow up in an environment where my parents were able to take care of children
that weren't their own, children who came from different environments, and still see
people live and thrive and learn really motivates the studies I do.
Thank you for listening.
[APPLAUSE]