Originally introduced by Sir Isaac Newton in Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica,
the concepts of absolute time and space provided a theoretical foundation that facilitated
Newtonian mechanics.
According to Newton, absolute time and space respectively are independent aspects of objective
reality:
Absolute, true and mathematical time, of itself, and from its own nature flows equably without
regard to anything external, and by another name is called duration: relative, apparent
and common time, is some sensible and external measure of duration by the means of motion,
which is commonly used instead of true time ...
According to Newton, absolute time exists independently of any perceiver and progresses
at a consistent pace throughout the universe.
Unlike relative time, Newton believed absolute time was imperceptible and could only be understood
mathematically.
According to Newton, humans are only capable of perceiving relative time, which is a measurement
of perceivable objects in motion.
From these movements, we infer the passage of time.
To quote Newton again:
Absolute space, in its own nature, without regard to anything external, remains always
similar and immovable.
Relative space is some movable dimension or measure of the absolute spaces; which our
senses determine by its position to bodies: and which is vulgarly taken for immovable
space ... Absolute motion is the translation of a body from one absolute place into another:
and relative motion, the translation from one relative place into another
These notions imply that absolute space and time do not depend upon physical events, but
are a backdrop or stage setting within which physical phenomena occur.
Thus, every object has an absolute state of motion relative to absolute space, so that
an object must be either in a state of absolute rest, or moving at some absolute speed.
To support his views, Newton provided some empirical examples: according to Newton, a
solitary rotating sphere can be inferred to rotate about its axis relative to absolute
space by observing the bulging of its equator, and a solitary pair of spheres tied by a rope
can be inferred to be in absolute rotation about their center of gravity by observing
the tension in the rope.
Absolute time and space continue to be used in classical mechanics, but modern formulations
by authors such as Walter Noll and Clifford Truesdell go beyond the linear algebra of
elastic moduli to use topology and functional analysis for non-linear field theories.
Historical controversy The idea of absolute space has proved particularly
controversial from Newton's time to the present.
For example, Leibniz was of the opinion that space made no sense except as the relative
location of bodies, and time made no sense except as the relative movement of bodies.
Bishop Berkeley suggested that, lacking any point of reference, a sphere in an otherwise
empty Universe could not be conceived to rotate, and a pair of spheres could be conceived to
rotate relative to one another, but not to rotate about their center of gravity.
A more recent form of these objections was made by Ernst Mach.
Mach's principle proposes that mechanics is entirely about relative motion of bodies and,
in particular, mass is an expression of such relative motion.
So, for example, a single particle in a Universe with no other bodies would have zero mass.
According to Mach, Newton's examples simply illustrate relative rotation of spheres and
the bulk of the Universe.
When, accordingly, we say that a body preserves unchanged its direction and velocity in space,
our assertion is nothing more or less than an abbreviated reference to the entire universe.
—Ernst Mach; as quoted by Ciufolini and Wheeler: Gravitation and Inertia, p. 387
These views opposing absolute space and time may be seen from a modern stance as an attempt
to introduce operational definitions for space and time, a perspective made explicit in the
special theory of relativity.
Even within the context of Newtonian mechanics, the modern view is that absolute space is
unnecessary.
Instead, the notion of inertial frame of reference has taken precedence, that is, a preferred
set of frames of reference that move uniformly with respect to one another.
The laws of physics transform from one inertial frame to another according to Galilean relativity,
leading to the following objections to absolute space, as outlined by Milutin Blagojević:
The existence of absolute space contradicts the internal logic of classical mechanics
since, according to Galilean principle of relativity, none of the inertial frames can
be singled out.
Absolute space does not explain inertial forces since they are related to acceleration with
respect to any one of the inertial frames.
Absolute space acts on physical objects by inducing their resistance to acceleration
but it cannot be acted upon.
Newton himself recognized the role of inertial frames.
The motions of bodies included in a given space are the same among themselves, whether
that space is at rest or moves uniformly forward in a straight line.
As a practical matter, inertial frames often are taken as frames moving uniformly with
respect to the fixed stars.
See Inertial frame of reference for more discussion on this.
In 1903 Bertrand Russell wrote a defense of absolute space and time in Principles of Mathematics,
while admitting that in the analysis of rational dynamics "non-Newtonian dynamics, like non-Euclidean
geometry, must be as interesting to us as the orthodox system."
Impact of special relativity The concepts of space and time were separate
in physical theory prior to the advent of special relativity theory, which connected
the two and showed both to be dependent upon the observer's state of motion.
In Einstein's theories, the ideas of absolute time and space were superseded by the notion
of spacetime in special relativity, and by dynamically curved spacetime in general relativity.
The theory of relativity does not allow the existence of absolute time because of the
nonexistence of absolute simultaneity.
Absolute simultaneity refers to the experimental establishment of coincidence of two or more
events in time at different locations in space in a manner agreed upon by all observers in
the universe.
The theory of relativity postulates a maximum rate of transmission of information as the
speed of light, and one consequence is that simultaneity at separated locations always
is relative to the observer.
Einstein's later views
In some of his later papers, Einstein gave a new definition of the aether by identifying
it with "properties of space".
Einstein also said that in general relativity the "aether" is not absolute anymore, as the
gravitational field and therefore the structure of spacetime depends on the presence of matter.
was not accepted by the scientific community.)
1920: To deny the ether is ultimately to assume that empty space has no physical qualities
whatever.
The fundamental facts of mechanics do not harmonize with this view.
For the mechanical behaviour of a corporeal system hovering freely in empty space depends
not only on relative positions and relative velocities, but also on its state of rotation,
which physically may be taken as a characteristic not appertaining to the system in itself.
In order to be able to look upon the rotation of the system, at least formally, as something
real, Newton objectivises space.
Since he classes his absolute space together with real things, for him rotation relative
to an absolute space is also something real.
Newton might no less well have called his absolute space “Ether”; what is essential
is merely that besides observable objects, another thing, which is not perceptible, must
be looked upon as real, to enable acceleration or rotation to be looked upon as something
real.
1924: Because it was no longer possible to speak, in any absolute sense, of simultaneous
states at different locations in the aether, the aether became, as it were, four-dimensional,
since there was no objective way of ordering its states by time alone.
According to special relativity too, the aether was absolute, since its influence on inertia
and the propagation of light was thought of as being itself independent of physical influence....The
theory of relativity resolved this problem by establishing the behaviour of the electrically
neutral point-mass by the law of the geodetic line, according to which inertial and gravitational
effects are no longer considered as separate.
In doing so, it attached characteristics to the aether which vary from point to point,
determining the metric and the dynamic behaviour of material points, and determined, in their
turn, by physical factors, namely the distribution of mass/energy.
Thus the aether of general relativity differs from those of classical mechanics and special
relativity in that it is not ‘absolute’ but determined, in its locally variable characteristics,
by ponderable matter.
See also
Absolute rotation Apeiron
Free space Inertial frame
Luminiferous aether Mach's principle
Philosophy of space and time References and notes