The Muromachi period is a division of Japanese history running from approximately 1337 to
1573. The period marks the governance of the Muromachi or Ashikaga shogunate, which was
officially established in 1338 by the first Muromachi shogun, Ashikaga Takauji, two years
after the brief Kenmu Restoration of imperial rule was brought to a close. The period ended
in 1573 when the 15th and last shogun of this line, Ashikaga Yoshiaki, was driven out of
the capital in Kyoto by Oda Nobunaga. From a cultural perspective, the period can
be divided into the Kitayama and Higashiyama periods.
The early years from 1336 to 1392 of the Muromachi period are known as the Nanboku-chō or Northern
and Southern Court period. This period is marked by the continued resistance of the
supporters of Emperor Go-Daigo, the emperor behind the Kenmu Restoration. The years from
1465 to the end of the Muromachi period are also known as the Sengoku period or Warring
States period.
Ashikaga bakufu
Emperor Go-Daigo's brief Kenmu Restoration for various reasons disappointed the samurai
class. Ashikaga Takauji obtained the samurais' strong support, and deposed Emperor Go-Daigo.
In 1338 Takauji was proclaimed shogun and established his government in Kyoto. However,
Emperor Godaigo escaped from his confinement, and revived his political power in Nara. The
ensuing period of Ashikaga rule was called Muromachi from the district of Kyoto in which
its headquarters – the Hana-no-gosho – were located by third shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu
in 1378. What distinguished the Ashikaga bakufu from that of Kamakura Bakufu was that, whereas
Kamakura had existed in equilibrium with the Kyōto court, Ashikaga took over the remnants
of the imperial government. Nevertheless, the Ashikaga bakufu was not as strong as that
in Kamakura had been, and was greatly preoccupied with civil war. Not until the rule of Ashikaga
Yoshimitsu did a semblance of order emerge.
Yoshimitsu allowed the constables, who had had limited powers during the Kamakura period,
to become strong regional rulers, later called daimyō. In time, a balance of power evolved
between the shogun and the daimyō; the three most prominent daimyō families rotated as
deputies to the shogun at Kyoto. Yoshimitsu was finally successful in reunifying the Northern
Court and the Southern Court in 1392, but, despite his promise of greater balance between
the imperial lines, the Northern Court maintained control over the throne thereafter. The line
of shoguns gradually weakened after Yoshimitsu and increasingly lost power to the daimyō
and other regional strongmen. The shogun's influence on imperial succession waned, and
the daimyō could back their own candidates. In time, the Ashikaga family had its own succession
problems, resulting finally in the Ōnin War, which left Kyoto devastated and effectively
ended the national authority of the bakufu. The power vacuum that ensued launched a century
of anarchy. Economic and cultural developments
Contact with the Ming dynasty China was renewed during the Muromachi period after the Chinese
sought support in suppressing Japanese pirates in coastal areas of China. Japanese pirates
of this era and region were referred to as wokou, by the Chinese. Wanting to improve
relations with China and to rid Japan of the wokou threat, Yoshimitsu accepted a relationship
with the Chinese that was to last for half a century. In 1401 he restarted the tribute
system, describing himself in a letter to the Chinese Emperor as "Your subject, the
King of Japan". Japanese wood, sulfur, copper ore, swords, and folding fans were traded
for Chinese silk, porcelain, books, and coins, in what the Chinese considered tribute but
the Japanese saw as profitable trade. During the time of the Ashikaga bakufu, a
new national culture, called Muromachi culture, emerged from the bakufu headquarters in Kyoto
to reach all levels of society. Zen Buddhism played a large role in spreading not only
religious but also artistic influences, especially those derived from paintings of the Chinese
Song, Yuan, and Ming dynasties. The proximity of the imperial court to the bakufu resulted
in a commingling of imperial family members, courtiers, daimyō, samurai, and Zen priests.
Art of all kinds—architecture, literature, Noh drama, Kyōgen, poetry, sarugaku, the
tea ceremony, landscape gardening, and flower arranging—all flourished during Muromachi
times. Shinto
There also was renewed interest in Shinto, which had quietly coexisted with Buddhism
during the centuries of the latter's predominance. In fact, Shinto, which lacked its own scriptures
and had few prayers, had, as a result of syncretic practices begun in the Nara period, widely
adopted Shingon Buddhist rituals. Between the eighth and fourteenth centuries, Shintoism
was nearly totally absorbed by Buddhism, becoming known as Ryōbu Shinto. The Mongol invasions
in the late thirteenth century, however, evoked a national consciousness of the role of the
kamikaze in defeating the enemy. Less than fifty years later, Kitabatake Chikafusa, the
chief commander of the Southern Court forces, wrote the Jinnō Shōtōki. This chronicle
emphasized the importance of maintaining the divine descent of the imperial line from Amaterasu
to the current emperor, a condition that gave Japan a special national polity. Besides reinforcing
the concept of the emperor as a deity, the Jinnōshōtōki provided a Shinto view of
history, which stressed the divine nature of all Japanese and the country's spiritual
supremacy over China and India. As a result, a change gradually occurred in the balance
between the dual Buddhist–Shinto religious practice. Between the fourteenth and seventeenth
centuries, Shinto reemerged as the primary belief system, developed its own philosophy
and scripture, and became a powerful nationalistic leaders.
Provincial wars and foreign contacts The Ōnin War led to serious political fragmentation
and obliteration of domains: a great struggle for land and power ensued among bushi chieftains
and lasted until the mid-sixteenth century. Peasants rose against their landlords and
samurai against their overlords as central control virtually disappeared. The imperial
house was left impoverished, and the bakufu was controlled by contending chieftains in
Kyoto. The provincial domains that emerged after the Ōnin War were smaller and easier
to control. Many new small daimyō arose from among the samurai who had overthrown their
great overlords. Border defenses were improved, and well fortified castle towns were built
to protect the newly opened domains, for which land surveys were made, roads built, and mines
opened. New house laws provided practical means of administration, stressing duties
and rules of behavior. Emphasis was put on success in war, estate management, and finance.
Threatening alliances were guarded against through strict marriage rules. Aristocratic
society was overwhelmingly military in character. The rest of society was controlled in a system
of vassalage. The shōen were obliterated, and court nobles and absentee landlords were
dispossessed. The new daimyō directly controlled the land, keeping the peasantry in permanent
serfdom in exchange for protection. Economic effect of wars between states
Most wars of the period were short and localized, although they occurred throughout Japan. By
1500 the entire country was engulfed in civil wars. Rather than disrupting the local economies,
however, the frequent movement of armies stimulated the growth of transportation and communications,
which in turn provided additional revenues from customs and tolls. To avoid such fees,
commerce shifted to the central region, which no daimyō had been able to control, and to
the Inland Sea. Economic developments and the desire to protect trade achievements brought
about the establishment of merchant and artisan guilds.
Western influence
By the end of the Muromachi period, the first Europeans had arrived. The Portuguese landed
in southern Kyūshū in 1543 and within two years were making regular port calls, initiating
the century-long Nanban trade period. The Spanish arrived in 1587, followed by the Dutch
in 1609. The Japanese began to attempt studies of European civilization in depth, and new
opportunities were presented for the economy, along with serious political challenges. European
firearms, fabrics, glassware, clocks, tobacco, and other Western innovations were traded
for Japanese gold and silver. Significant wealth was accumulated through trade, and
lesser daimyō, especially in Kyūshū, greatly increased their power. Provincial wars became
more deadly with the introduction of firearms, such as muskets and cannons, and greater use
of infantry. Christianity
Christianity had an impact on Japan, largely through the efforts of the Jesuits, led first
by the Navarrese Saint Francis Xavier, who arrived in Kagoshima in southern Kyūshū
in 1549. Both daimyō and merchants seeking better trade arrangements as well as peasants
were among the converts. By 1560 Kyoto had become another major area of missionary activity
in Japan. In 1568 the port of Nagasaki, in northwestern Kyūshū, was established by
a Christian daimyō and was turned over to Jesuit administration in 1579. By 1582 there
were as many as 150,000 converts and 200 churches. But bakufu tolerance for this alien influence
diminished as the country became more unified and openness decreased. Proscriptions against
Christianity began in 1587 and outright persecutions in 1597. Although foreign trade was still
encouraged, it was closely regulated, and by 1640 the exclusion and suppression of Christianity
had become national policy. Events
1336: Ashikaga Takauji captures Kyoto and forces Emperor Go-Daigo to move to a southern
court 1338: Ashikaga Takauji declares himself shogun,
moves his capital into the Muromachi district of Kyoto and supports the northern court
1392: The southern court surrenders to shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu and the empire is unified
again 1397: Kinkaku-ji is built by Ashikaga Yoshimitsu.
1427: Edo is established 1450: Ryōan-ji is built by Hosokawa Katsumoto.
1467: The Ōnin War is split among feudal lords
1489: Ginkaku-ji is built by Ashikaga Yoshimasa 1542: Firearms are introduced by a shipwrecked
Portuguese 1546: Hōjō Ujiyasu who had won the Battle
of Kawagoe becomes ruler of the Kantō region 1549: The Catholic missionary Francis Xavier
arrived in Japan 1555: Mōri Motonari, who had won the Battle
of Miyajima, becomes ruler of the Chūgoku region
1560: Battle of Okehazama 1568: The daimyō Oda Nobunaga enters Kyoto
and ends the civil war 1570: The Archbishopric of Edo is established
and the first Japanese Jesuits are ordained 1570: Battle of Anegawa
1573: The daimyō Oda Nobunaga overthrows the Muromachi bakufu and extends his control
over all of Japan 1573: Battle of Mikatagahara
1575: Battle of Nagashino See also
Higashiyama period Wabi-sabi
Nyōbō kotoba References
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the
Library of Congress Country Studies. - Japan