The Galilean moons are the four moons of Jupiter discovered by Galileo Galilei around January
1610. They are by far the largest of the moons of Jupiter and derive their names from the
lovers of Zeus: Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. They are among the most massive
objects in the Solar System outside the Sun and the eight planets, with radii larger than
any of the dwarf planets. The three inner moons – Ganymede, Europa, and Io – participate
in a 1:2:4 orbital resonance. The four moons were discovered in either 1609
or 1610 when Galileo made improvements to his telescope, which enabled him to observe
celestial bodies more distinctly than ever. Galileo's discovery showed the importance
of the telescope as a tool for astronomers by proving that there were objects in space
that cannot be seen by the naked eye. More importantly, the incontrovertible discovery
of celestial bodies orbiting something other than Earth dealt a serious blow to the then-accepted
Ptolemaic world system, or the geocentric theory in which everything orbits around Earth.
Galileo initially named his discovery the Cosmica Sidera, but the names that eventually
prevailed were chosen by Simon Marius. Marius discovered the moons independently at the
same time as Galileo, and gave them their present names, which were suggested by Johannes
Kepler, in his Mundus Jovialis, published in 1614.
History Discovery
As a result of improvements Galileo Galilei made to the telescope, with a magnifying capability
of 20×, he was able to see celestial bodies more distinctly than was ever possible before.
This allowed Galilei to discover in either December 1609 or January 1610 what came to
be known as the Galilean moons. On January 7, 1610, Galileo wrote a letter
containing the first mention of Jupiter’s moons. At the time, he saw only three of them,
and he believed them to be fixed stars near Jupiter. He continued to observe these celestial
orbs from January 8 to March 2, 1610. In these observations, he discovered a fourth body,
and also observed that the four were not fixed stars, but rather were orbiting Jupiter.
Galileo’s discovery proved the importance of the telescope as a tool for astronomers
by showing that there were objects in space to be discovered that until then had remained
unseen by the naked eye. More importantly, the discovery of celestial bodies orbiting
something other than the Earth dealt a blow to the then-accepted Ptolemaic world system,
which held that the Earth was at the center of the universe and all other celestial bodies
revolved around it. Galileo's Sidereus Nuncius, which announced celestial observations through
his telescope, does not explicitly mention Copernican heliocentrism, a theory that placed
the Sun at the center of the universe. Nevertheless, Galileo accepted the Copernican theory. As
a result of these discoveries, Galileo was able to develop a method of determining longitude
based on the timing of the orbits of the Galilean moons.
A Chinese historian of astronomy, Xi Zezong, has claimed that a "small reddish star" observed
near Jupiter in 362 BC by Chinese astronomer Gan De may have been Ganymede, predating Galileo's
discovery by around two millennia. Dedication to the Medicis
In 1605, Galileo had been employed as a mathematics tutor for Cosimo de' Medici. In 1609, Cosimo
became Grand Duke Cosimo II of Tuscany. Galileo, seeking patronage from his now-wealthy former
student and his powerful family, used the discovery of Jupiter’s moons to gain it.
On February 13, 1610, Galileo wrote to the Grand Duke’s secretary:
God graced me with being able, through such a singular sign, to reveal to my Lord my devotion
and the desire I have that his glorious name live as equal among the stars, and since it
is up to me, the first discoverer, to name these new planets, I wish, in imitation of
the great sages who placed the most excellent heroes of that age among the stars, to inscribe
these with the name of the Most Serene Grand Duke.
Galileo asked whether he should name the moons the "Cosmian Stars", after Cosimo alone, or
the "Medician Stars", which would honor all four brothers in the Medici clan. The secretary
replied that the latter name would be best. On March 12, 1610, Galileo wrote his dedicatory
letter to the Duke of Tuscany, and the next day sent a copy to the Grand Duke, hoping
to obtain the Grand Duke's support as quickly as possible. On March 19, he sent the telescope
he had used to first view Jupiter's moons to the Grand Duke, along with an official
copy of Sidereus Nuncius that, following the secretary's advice, named the four moons the
Medician Stars. In his dedicatory introduction, Galileo wrote:
Scarcely have the immortal graces of your soul begun to shine forth on earth than bright
stars offer themselves in the heavens which, like tongues, will speak of and celebrate
your most excellent virtues for all time. Behold, therefore, four stars reserved for
your illustrious name ... which ... make their journeys and orbits with a marvelous speed
around the star of Jupiter ... like children of the same family ... Indeed, it appears
the Maker of the Stars himself, by clear arguments, admonished me to call these new planets by
the illustrious name of Your Highness before all others.
Name
Galileo initially called his discovery the Cosmica Sidera, in honour of Cosimo II de'
Medici. At Cosimo's suggestion, Galileo changed the name to Medicea Sidera, honouring all
four Medici brothers. The discovery was announced in the Sidereus Nuncius, published in Venice
in March 1610, less than two months after the first observations.
Other names put forward include: I. Principharus, II. Victripharus, III. Cosmipharus
and IV. Fernipharus - by Giovanni Battista Hodierna, a disciple of Galileo and author
of the first ephemerides; Circulatores Jovis, or Jovis Comites - by
Johannes Hevelius; Gardes, or Satellites - by Jacques Ozanam.
The names that eventually prevailed were chosen by Simon Marius, who discovered the moons
independently at the same time as Galileo: he named them at the suggestion of Johannes
Kepler after lovers of the god Zeus: Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto, in his Mundus Jovialis,
published in 1614. Galileo steadfastly refused to use Marius'
names and invented as a result the numbering scheme that is still used nowadays, in parallel
with proper moon names. The numbers run from Jupiter outward, thus I, II, III and IV for
Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto respectively. Galileo used this system in his notebooks
but never actually published it. The numbered names were used until mid-20th century when
other inner moons were discovered, and Marius' names became widely used.
Members Simulations suggest there may have been several
generations of Galilean satellites in Jupiter's early history. Each generation of moons to
have formed would have spiraled into Jupiter and been destroyed, due to drag from Jupiter's
proto-lunar disk, with new moons forming from the remaining debris. By the time the present
generation formed, the debris had thinned out to the point that it no longer greatly
interfered with the moons' orbits. Io is anhydrous and likely has an interior of rock and metal.
Europa is thought to contain 8% ice and water by mass with the remainder rock. These moons
are, in increasing order of distance from Jupiter:
Io
Io is the innermost of the four Galilean moons of Jupiter and, with a diameter of 3,642 kilometers,
the fourth-largest moon in the Solar System. It was named after Io, a priestess of Hera
who became one of the lovers of Zeus. Nevertheless, it was simply referred to as “Jupiter I,”
or “The first satellite of Jupiter,” until the mid-20th century.
With over 400 active volcanoes, Io is the most geologically active object in the Solar
System. Its surface is dotted with more than 100 mountains, some of which are taller than
Earth's Mount Everest. Unlike most satellites in the outer Solar System, Io is primarily
composed of silicate rock surrounding a molten iron or iron sulfide core.
Although not proven, recent data from the Galileo orbiter indicate that Io might have
its own magnetic field. Io has an extremely thin atmosphere made up mostly of sulfur dioxide.
If a surface data or collection vessel were to land on Io in the future, it would have
to be extremely tough to survive the radiation and magnetic fields that originate from Jupiter.
Europa
Europa, the second of the four Galilean moons, is the second closest to Jupiter and the smallest
at 3121.6 kilometers in diameter, which is slightly smaller than the Moon. The name,
Europa was after a mythical Phoenician noblewoman, Europa, who was courted by Zeus and became
the queen of Crete, but did not become widely used until the mid-20th century.
It is one of the smoothest objects in the solar system, with a layer of water surrounding
the mantle of the planet, thought to be 100 kilometers thick. The smooth surface includes
a layer of ice, while the bottom of the ice is theorized to be liquid water. The apparent
youth and smoothness of the surface have led to the hypothesis that a water ocean exists
beneath it, which could conceivably serve as an abode for extraterrestrial life. Heat
energy from tidal flexing ensures that the ocean remains liquid and drives geological
activity. Life may exist in Europa's under-ice ocean, perhaps subsisting in an environment
similar to Earth's deep-ocean hydrothermal vents or the Antarctic Lake Vostok. Life in
such an ocean could possibly be similar to microbial life on Earth in the deep ocean.
So far, there is no evidence that life exists on Europa, but the likely presence of liquid
water has spurred calls to send a probe there. The prominent markings that criss-cross the
moon seem to be mainly albedo features, which emphasize low topography. There are few craters
on Europa because its surface is tectonically active and young. Some theories suggest that
Jupiter’s gravity is causing these markings, as one side of Europa is constantly facing
Jupiter. Also, volcanic water eruptions splitting the surface of Europa, and even geysers have
been considered as a cause. The color of the markings, reddish-brown, is theorized to be
caused by sulfur, but scientists cannot confirm that, because no data collection devices have
been sent to Europa. Europa is primarily made of silicate rock and likely has an iron core.
It has a tenuous atmosphere composed primarily of oxygen.
Ganymede
Ganymede, the third Galilean moon is named after the mythological Ganymede, cupbearer
of the Greek gods and Zeus's beloved. Ganymede is the largest natural satellite in the Solar
System at 5262.4 kilometers in diameter, which makes it larger than the planet Mercury - although
only at about half of its mass since Ganymede is an icy world. It is the only satellite
in the Solar System known to possess a magnetosphere, likely created through convection within the
liquid iron core. Ganymede is composed primarily of silicate
rock and water ice, and a salt-water ocean is believed to exist nearly 200 km below
Ganymede's surface, sandwiched between layers of ice. The metallic core of Ganymede suggests
a greater heat at some time in its past than had previously been proposed. The surface
is a mix of two types of terrain – highly cratered dark regions and younger, but still
ancient, regions with a large array of grooves and ridges. Ganymede has a high number of
craters, but many are gone or barely visible due to its icy crust forming over them. The
satellite has a thin oxygen atmosphere that includes O, O2, and possibly O3, and some
atomic hydrogen.
Callisto
Callisto is the fourth and last Galilean moon, and is the second largest of the four, and
at 4820.6 kilometers in diameter, it is the third largest moon in the Solar System. Callisto
was a daughter of the Arkadian King Lykaon and a hunting companion of the goddess Artemis.
It does not form part of the orbital resonance that affects three inner Galilean satellites
and thus does not experience appreciable tidal heating. Callisto is composed of approximately
equal amounts of rock and ices, which makes it the least dense of the Galilean moons.
It is one of the most heavily cratered satellites in the solar system, and one major feature
is a basin around 3000 km wide called Valhalla. Callisto is surrounded by an extremely thin
atmosphere composed of carbon dioxide and probably molecular oxygen. Investigation revealed
that Callisto may possibly have a subsurface ocean of liquid water at depths greater than
100 kilometers. The likely presence of an ocean within Callisto indicates that it can
or could harbor life. However, this is less likely than on nearby Europa. Callisto has
long been considered the most suitable place for a human base for future exploration of
the Jupiter system since it is furthest from the intense radiation of Jupiter.
Comparative structure
Fluctuations in the orbits of the moons indicate that their mean density decreases with distance
from Jupiter. Callisto, the outermost and least dense of the four, has a density intermediate
between ice and rock whereas Io, the innermost and densest moon, has a density intermediate
between rock and iron. Callisto has an ancient, heavily-cratered and unaltered ice surface
and the way it rotates indicates that its density is equally distributed, suggesting
that it has no rocky or metallic core but consists of a homogenous mix of rock and ice.
This may well have been the original structure of all the moons. The rotation of the three
inner moons, in contrast, indicates differentiation of their interiors with denser matter at the
core and lighter matter above. They also reveal significant alteration of the surface. Ganymede
reveals past tectonic movement of the ice surface which required partial melting of
subsurface layers. Europa reveals more dynamic and recent movement of this nature, suggesting
a thinner ice crust. Finally, Io, the innermost moon, has a sulphur surface, active volcanism
and no sign of ice. All this evidence suggests that the nearer a moon is to Jupiter the hotter
its interior. The current model is that the moons experience tidal heating as a result
of the gravitational field of Jupiter in inverse proportion to the square of their distance
from the giant planet. In all but Callisto this will have melted the interior ice, allowing
rock and iron to sink to the interior and water to cover the surface. In Ganymede a
thick and solid ice crust then formed. In warmer Europa a thinner more easily broken
crust formed. In Io the heating is so extreme that all the rock has melted and water has
long ago boiled out into space.
Size
Latest flyby
Visibility
All four Galilean moons are bright enough that they could, if they were farther away
from Jupiter, be sighted from Earth without a telescope. They have apparent magnitudes
between 4.6 and 5.6 when Jupiter is in opposition with the Sun, and are about one unit of magnitude
dimmer when Jupiter is in conjunction. The main difficulty in observing the moons from
Earth is their proximity to Jupiter since they are obscured by its brightness. The maximum
angular separations of the moons are between 2 and 10 minutes of arc from Jupiter, close
to the limit of human visual acuity. Ganymede and Callisto, at their maximum separation,
are the likeliest targets for potential naked-eye observation. The easiest way to observe them
is to "cover" Jupiter with an object, e.g., a tree limb or a utility pole that is perpendicular
to the plane of the moons' orbits. See also
Moons of Jupiter Jupiter's moons in fiction
References
External links Animation of Galileo's observation, march
1613 Sky & Telescope utility for identifying Galilean
moons