In the early 1960s, international communications were limited to transmissions through undersea
cables or occasionally unreliable radio signals bounced off of the ionosphere.
As you might imagine from this, many in the Western world weren't too keen on the state
of the situation given that were to someone, say, the Soviet Union, cut those cables before
launching an attack, international communications with overseas forces and foreign allies would
have to rely on the mood of said ionosphere.
For those unfamiliar, the ionosphere is a layer of the upper atmosphere about 50 to
600 miles above sea level.
It gets its name because it is ionized consistently by solar and cosmic radiation.
In very simple terms, X-ray, ultraviolet, and shorter wavelengths of radiation given
off by the Sun (and from other cosmic sources) release electrons in this layer of the atmosphere
when these particular photons are absorbed by molecules.
Because the density of molecules and atoms is quite low in the ionosphere (particularly
in the upper layers), it allows free electrons to exist in this way for a short period of
time before ultimately recombining.
Lower in the atmosphere, where the density of molecules is greater, this recombination
happens much faster.
What does this have to do with communication and radio waves?
Without interference, radio waves travel in a straight line from the broadcast source,
ultimately hitting the ionosphere.
What happens after is dependent on a variety of factors, notable among them being the frequency
of the waves and the density of the free electrons.
For certain types of radio waves, given the right conditions, they will essentially bounce
back and forth between the ground and the ionosphere, propagating the signal farther
and farther.
So clearly the ionosphere can potentially play an important part in the terrestrial
radio and communication process.
But it is the constantly shifting nature of the ionosphere that makes things really interesting.
And for that, we'll have to get a little more technical, though we'll at the least spare
you the math, and we'll leave out a little of the complexity in an effort to not go full
textbook on you.
To begin with, the ionosphere’s composition changes most drastically at night, primarily
because, of course, the Sun goes missing for a bit.
Without as abundant a source of ionizing rays, the D and E levels (pictured right) of the
ionosphere cease to be very ionized, but the F region (particularly F2) still remains quite
ionized.
Further, because the atmosphere is significantly less dense here then the E and D regions,
it results in more free electrons (the density of which is key here).
When these electrons encounter a strong radio wave of certain types, such as AM radio, they
can potentially oscillate at the frequency of the wave, taking some of the energy from
the radio wave in the process.
With enough of them, as can happen in the F layer, (when the density of encountered
electrons is sufficient relative to the specific signal frequency), and assuming they don't
just recombine with some ion (which is much more likely in the E and D layers in the daytime),
this can very effectively refract the signal back down to Earth at sufficient strength
to be picked up on a receiver.
Depending on conditions, this process can potentially repeat several times with the
signal bouncing down to the ground and back up.
Thus, using this skywave certain radio signals can be propagated even thousands of miles
and, most pertinent to the topic at hand, across oceans.
Of course, given the unpredictability of this form of communication, and potentially even
times when communication would be impossible, military brass during the Cold War wanted
another option.
Developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Lincoln Labs, the project was
initially called "Project Needles" by Professor Walter E. Morrow in 1958 when he first dreamed
up the idea.
It was later re-named "West Ford", presumably after Westford, Massachusetts, a nearby town.
The idea was to place potentially even billions of tiny (1.78 centimeters 0.7 inches long
and microscopically thin) copper antennae or dipoles in a medium Earth orbit to be used
for communication signals at 8 Ghz.
The first set of well over a hundred million needles was launched on October 21, 1961,
but unfortunately this test failed when the needles didn't disperse as planned.
On a second attempt in May 9, 1963, a batch of 350 million needles was placed on the back
of an Air Force satellite and sent into orbit.
Once dispersed, properly this time, the needles spread to form a sparsely concentrated belt
with approximately 50 dipoles per cubic mile.
While you might think surely this wouldn't be dense enough to be effective for use in
communication, in fact early results of the experiment were extremely promising, with
communication established using the needle array from California to Massachusetts, some
3K or so miles or 4,800 km apart.
As such, there were reports that the Air Force was considering launching two more belts to
be placed more permanently in orbit.
There was a problem, however.
Beyond the Soviets, allies and even Americans opposed the further deployment and continuance
of this program.
Why?
Astronomers, in particular, were afraid that the belt would interfere with their observations.
The outrage of scientists and the reason for it was perhaps best expressed by Sir Bernard
Lovell of the Jodrell Bank Radio Observatory who said: "The damage lies not with this experiment
alone, but with the attitude of mind which makes it possible without international agreement
and safeguards."
After all, the space above the Earth is not the United States' alone to do with as it
pleases without consulting other nations of Earth.
While you might consider this a bit of an overreaction, it's important to understand
the context here, with the U.S. up to and around this point having done a series of
things in space without oversight that the international community was more than a little
upset about.
For example, consider that also smack dab in the middle of this time, the United States
was busy accidentally nuking Britain's first satellite, among many, many others.
The satellite in question was the Ariel-1, which was developed as a joint-venture between
the United States and Britain, with Britain designing and building the core systems of
the satellite and NASA launching it into orbit via a Thor-Delta rocket.
Around nine months after the launch of the first batch of needles, on July 9, 1962, mere
weeks after Ariel-1 was put into orbit and had successfully begun transmitting data about
the ionosphere back to Earth, British scientists were shocked when the sensors aboard Ariel-1
designed to measure radiation levels suddenly began to give wildly high readings.
As it turned out, as Ariel-1 was happily free-falling around the Earth, the US military had decided
to detonate an experimental 1.4 megaton nuclear weapon named Starfish-Prime in the upper atmosphere
as part of Project Fish Bowl.
The explosion, which happened on the other side of the planet to Ariel-1, sent a wave
of additional radiation around the Earth that ultimately damaged some of the systems on
Ariel-1, particularly its solar panels, killing it and about 1/3 of the rest of the satellites
in low-Earth orbit at the time.
Most pertinent to the topic of communications, this famously included the Telstar satellite,
which was the first commercial communication relay satellite designed to transmit signals
across the Atlantic and managed around 400 such communications before the U.S. accidentally
nuked it.
Funny enough, the Telstar actually wasn't in orbit at the time of the explosion, being
put there the day after the Starfish-Prime detonation.
However, the additional ionizing radiation created by the explosion took years to dissipate
and was not anticipated by the designers of this particular satellite.
The immediate result being the degradation of Telstar's systems, particularly the failure
of several transistors in the command system, causing it to stop working just a few months
after being placed in orbit.
They were eventually able to get it back online for a short period via some clever software
workarounds, but it didn't last thanks to the extra radiation further degrading its
systems.
It’s also noteworthy here that The Starfish explosion was actually supposed to have happened
a couple weeks earlier on June 20th, but the rocket carrying it failed at about 30,000
feet.
Once this happened, the self-destruct on the nuclear warhead was initiated and it broke
apart, raining its radioactive innards down on Johnston and Sand Islands, as well as in
the ocean around them.
It should also be noted that the effects of Starfish-Prime weren't just limited to low
orbit.
The electromagnetic pulse created by the blast ended up being much larger than expected and,
in Hawaii some 900 or so miles away from the blast, the pulse ended up knocking out a few
hundred street lights and damaged the telephone system.
Today in our digital world, of course, a similar electromagnetic pulse would have much more
catastrophic effects, especially if near more populated centers, potentially even revealing
the Lizard people's Matrix, which would be catastrophic to our Draconian overlords' (may
they reign forever) plans...
Needless to say, this, the needles in space, and other such projects had many in the international
community concerned with the lack of any oversight on the United States' activities in space.
(Presumably it would have been even worse had everyone realized the United States had,
a few years before this, planned to nuke the moon, more or less just because they could...)
Going back to the needle issue, a compromise measure was reached thanks to incorporating
a sort of planned obsolescence; that is, none of the needles would remain in orbit longer
than five years.
(Or so they thought, more on this in a bit.)
Thinking more long term, several groups of scientists, including the International Astronomical
Union (IAU) and the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) of the International Council of Scientific
Unions (ICSU) demanded access and consultation in this and other such projects in the future.
Ultimately an agreement was reached which granted the scientists the ability to participate
in the planning and evaluation of space projects.
Of course, this particular issue quickly became moot as shortly after the second group of
needles was dispersed, the military deployed its own first communication satellite system
in 1966, making the needle system, while effective, obsolete.
With this deployment of one object instead of hundreds of millions, the furor died down
and people, for the most part, forgot about West Ford.
That said, while the project is largely forgotten, its effects are not with the consultation
provisions of the original West Ford agreement with the IAU included in the Outer Space Treaty
of 1967, an agreement entered into by ninety-nine countries, that was designed to protect against
the militarization and degradation of outer space.
Among other things, in a nutshell, it provides that no country can claim ownership of space
nor any celestial bodies; all countries will avoid contaminating both and are liable for
any damage they cause; no weapons of mass destruction (WMD) will be deployed or placed
in orbit or on any celestial body; and no military bases may be placed on any celestial
bodies, including the Moon, something that unfortunately saw a planned military installation
by the U.S. fully scrapped, as we covered in our article: That Time the U.S. was Going
to Build a Massive, Death Ray Equipped, Military Moon Base.
On the bright side, the treaty also includes a Good Samaritan law that provides that astronauts
are "envoys of mankind in outer space and [all] shall render to them all possible assistance
in the event of accident, distress, or emergency landing."
Going back to the needles, in case you're wondering, despite the planned obsolescence,
as of 2019, a few dozen clumps of them remain in orbit and are closely tracked to make sure
they don't cause any problems with all the other stuff floating around our little beautiful
home space craft known as Earth.
Speaking of beautiful spacecraft and conflict…
Star Conflict!!!
Bonus Facts: • Given AM radio signals can propagate for
thousands of miles via the aforementioned skywaves, particularly at night, this can
become a major problem as there are only a little over 100 allowed AM radio frequencies
(restricted to keep signals interfering too much with one another), but around 5,000 AM
radio stations in the United States alone.
As a result, at night, AM stations in the United States typically reduce their power,
go off the air completely until sunrise the next day, and/or possibly are required to
use directional antennas so their specific signal doesn't interfere with other stations
on the same frequency.
On the other hand, FM stations don't have to do any of this as the ionosphere doesn't
greatly affect their signals, which has the side benefit (or disadvantage, depending on
your point of view) of severely limiting the range of the FM signals, which rely on groundwave
propagation.
• Speaking of Radio and space, while not a job ever mentioned by my school career counselor,
it turns out "Space DJ" is a thing, if you work at NASA, going all the way back to 1965
during the Gemini 6 mission on December 16th, likely initially as a joke.
During this mission, astronauts Walter Schirra and Tom Stafford were woken up by a recording
of singer Jack Jones and Hello Dolly.
This musical wake-up call quickly became a regular occurrence intended as a way of bolstering
morale while allowing astronauts a few minutes to wake up slowly before having to respond
to ground control.
Over the years, wake-up calls became one of NASA’s most beloved traditions, with the
role of picking the songs given to the mission's Capsule Commander (CAPCOM)...
Yes, just to be clear, not only do these people get to put CAPCOM for NASA on their resume,
but they can also add in “Space DJ".
Thanks Career Councilor...
If you're wondering, the songs chosen over the years have been wildly eclectic, ranging
from classical music by composers like Bach and Beethoven to Metallica and the Beastie
Boys.
Thanks to the extensive records NASA keeps, we not only know every song played for astronauts
in orbit since 1965, we also have the astronaut’s responses to some of the more unusual choices
played.
For example, for a 2008 mission aboard the Space Shuttle Atlantis, officially designated
as STS-123, CAPCOM played a brief snippet of the theme song from the presumably epic
film Godzilla VS Space Godzilla as well as part of the Blue Oyster Cult song, Godzilla,
for Japanese astronaut Takao Doi, signing off by saying:
Good morning Endeavour.
Doi san, ohayo gozaimasu, from mission control here in Houston, take on today like a monster.
An amused Doi responded that he was “happy to hear Godzilla,” before himself signing
off to get to work.
According to Fries’ extensive archives, Godzilla’s iconic theme song is apparently
a popular choice for Japanese astronauts, as are the themes from other well-known films
like Star Wars, Star Trek and Rocky.
Predictably, songs with a space theme are also popular choices, with David Bowie’s
Space Oddity and Elton John’s Rocket Man being noted as some of the most commonly played.
In addition to songs, NASA has, at various points, played private messages recorded by
the astronauts' loved ones (including the occasional singing of "Happy Birthday" where
applicable) and even occasional messages from celebrities.
Notable examples of the latter include personalised greetings from William Shatner, Paul McCartney
and Elton John, a skit performed by Jim Henson involving Miss Piggy, and even a song sung
by Darth Vader set to backing music from The Beatles.
Perhaps best of all was the crew of Atlantis on November 25, 1991 being woken to none other
than Patrick Stewart stating (with Star Trek: The Next Generation theme music playing in
the background), Space: the final frontier.
This is the voyage of the Space Shuttle Atlantis.
Its ten-day mission: To explore new methods of remote sensing and observation of the planet
Earth...
To seek out new data on radiation in space, and a new understanding of the effects of
microgravity on the human body...
To boldly go where two hundred and fifty-five men and women have gone before!
Hello Fred, Tom, Story, Jim, Tom, and especially Mario -- this is Patrick Stewart, choosing
not to outrank you as Captain Jean-Luc Picard, saying that we are confident of a productive
and successful mission.
Make it so.
As for today, with the retirement of the Space Shuttle program, this wake-up call tradition
has partially been left in the dustbin of history, though occasionally is still observed
on the International Space Station, and presumably will be reinstituted as a regular activity
once NASA begins sending people to space themselves again.