Laozi was a philosopher and poet of ancient China. He is best known as the reputed author
of the Tao Te Ching and the founder of philosophical Taoism, but he is also revered as a deity
in religious Taoism and traditional Chinese religions. Although a legendary figure, he
is usually dated to around the 6th century BC and reckoned a contemporary of Confucius,
but some historians contend that he actually lived during the Warring States period of
the 5th or 4th century BC. A central figure in Chinese culture, Laozi is claimed by both
the emperors of the Tang dynasty and modern people of the Li surname as a founder of their
lineage. Throughout history, Laozi's work has been embraced by various anti-authoritarian
movements.
Names In traditional accounts, Laozi's personal
name is usually given as Li Er and his courtesy name as Boyang. A prominent posthumous name
was Li Dan. Laozi itself is an honorific title: 老 and
子. It is usually pronounced in English. It has been romanized numerous ways, sometimes
leading to confusion. The most common present form is Laozi or Lǎozǐ, based on the Hanyu
Pinyin system adopted by Mainland China in 1958 and Taiwan in 2009. During the 20th century,
Lao-tzu was more common, based on the formerly prevalent Wade–Giles system. In the 19th
century, the title was usually romanized as Lao-tse. Other forms include the variants
Lao-tze and Lao-tsu and the Latinate Laocius. As a religious figure, he is worshipped under
the name "Supreme Old Lord" and as one of the "Three Pure Ones". During the Tang, he
was granted the title "Supremely Mysterious and Primordial Emperor".
Historical views In the mid-twentieth century, a consensus
emerged among scholars that the historicity of the person known as Laozi is doubtful and
that the Tao Te Ching was "a compilation of Taoist sayings by many hands." Alan Watts
urged more caution, holding that this view was part of an academic fashion for skepticism
about historical spiritual and religious figures and stating that not enough would be known
for years – or possibly ever – to make a firm judgment. Ursula K. Le Guin maintains
that the style is consistent with a single author with a few additions by later Taoists.
The earliest certain reference to the present figure of Laozi is found in the 1st-century BCE
Records of the Grand Historian collected by the historian Sima Qian from earlier accounts.
In one account, Laozi was said to be a contemporary of Confucius during the 6th or 5th century BCE.
His surname was Li and his personal name was Er or Dan. He was an official in the imperial
archives and wrote a book in two parts before departing to the west. In another, Laozi was
a different contemporary of Confucius titled Lao Laizi and wrote a book in 15 parts. In
a third, he was the court astrologer Lao Dan who lived during the 4th-century BCE reign
of Duke Xian of Qin. The oldest text of the Tao Te Ching so far recovered was written
on bamboo slips and dates to the late 4th century BCE. According to traditional accounts, Laozi was
a scholar who worked as the Keeper of the Archives for the royal court of Zhou. This
reportedly allowed him broad access to the works of the Yellow Emperor and other classics
of the time. The stories assert that Laozi never opened a formal school but nonetheless
attracted a large number of students and loyal disciples. There are many variations of a
story retelling his encounter with Confucius, most famously in the Zhuangzi.
He was sometimes held to have come from the village of Chu Jen in Chu. In accounts where
Laozi married, he was said to have had a son named Zong who became a celebrated soldier.
Many clans of the Li family trace their descent to Laozi, including the emperors of the Tang
dynasty. According to the Simpkinses, while many of these lineages are questionable, they
provide a testament to Laozi's impact on Chinese culture.
The third story in Sima Qian states that Laozi grew weary of the moral decay of life in Chengzhou
and noted the kingdom's decline. He ventured west to live as a hermit in the unsettled
frontier at the age of 160. At the western gate of the city, he was recognized by the
guard Yinxi. The sentry asked the old master to record his wisdom for the good of the country
before he would be permitted to pass. The text Laozi wrote was said to be the Tao Te
Ching, although the present version of the text includes additions from later periods.
In some versions of the tale, the sentry was so touched by the work that he became a disciple
and left with Laozi, never to be seen again. In others, the "Old Master" journeyed all
the way to India and was the teacher of Siddartha Gautama, the Buddha. Others claim he was the
Buddha himself.
A seventh-century work, the Sandong Zhunang, embellished the relationship between Laozi
and Yinxi. Laozi pretended to be a farmer when reaching the western gate, but was recognized
by Yinxi, who asked to be taught by the great master. Laozi was not satisfied by simply
being noticed by the guard and demanded an explanation. Yinxi expressed his deep desire
to find the Tao and explained that his long study of astrology allowed him to recognize
Laozi's approach. Yinxi was accepted by Laozi as a disciple. This is considered an exemplary
interaction between Daoist master and disciple, reflecting the testing a seeker must undergo
before being accepted. A would-be adherent is expected to prove his determination and
talent, clearly expressing his wishes and showing that he had made progress on his own
towards realizing the Tao. The Pearly Bag of the Three Caverns continues
the parallel of an adherent's quest. Yinxi received his ordination when Laozi transmitted
the Daodejing, along with other texts and precepts, just as Taoist adherents receive
a number of methods, teachings and scriptures at ordination. This is only an initial ordination
and Yinxi still needed an additional period to perfect his virtue, thus Laozi gave him
three years to perfect his Dao. Yinxi gave himself over to a full-time devotional life.
After the appointed time, Yinxi again demonstrates determination and perfect trust, sending out
a black sheep to market as the agreed sign. He eventually meets again with Laozi, who
announces that Yinxi's immortal name is listed in the heavens and calls down a heavenly procession
to clothe Yinxi in the garb of immortals. The story continues that Laozi bestowed a
number of titles upon Yinxi and took him on a journey throughout the universe, even into
the nine heavens. After this fantastic journey, the two sages set out to western lands of
the barbarians. The training period, reuniting and travels represent the attainment of the
highest religious rank in medieval Taoism called "Preceptor of the Three Caverns". In
this legend, Laozi is the perfect Daoist master and Yinxi is the ideal Taoist student. Laozi
is presented as the Tao personified, giving his teaching to humanity for their salvation.
Yinxi follows the formal sequence of preparation, testing, training and attainment.
The story of Laozi has taken on strong religious overtones since the Han dynasty. As Taoism
took root, Laozi was worshipped as a god. Belief in the revelation of the Tao from the
divine Laozi resulted in the formation of the Way of the Celestial Master, the first
organized religious Taoist sect. In later mature Taoist tradition, Laozi came to be
seen as a personification of the Tao. He is said to have undergone numerous "transformations"
and taken on various guises in various incarnations throughout history to initiate the faithful
in the Way. Religious Taoism often holds that the "Old Master" did not disappear after writing
the Tao Te Ching but rather spent his life traveling and revealing the Tao.
Taoist myths state that Laozi was conceived when his mother gazed upon a falling star.
He supposedly remained in her womb for 62 years before being born while his mother was
leaning against a plum tree. Laozi was said to have emerged as a grown man with a full
grey beard and long earlobes, both symbols of wisdom and long life. Other myths claim
that he was reborn 13 times after his first life during the days of Fuxi. In his last
incarnation as Laozi, he lived nine hundred and ninety years and spent his life traveling
to reveal the Tao. Tao Te Ching
Laozi is traditionally regarded as the author of the Daodejing, though the identity of its
author(s) and/or compiler(s) has been debated throughout history. It is one of the most
significant treatises in Chinese cosmogony. As with most other ancient Chinese philosophers,
Laozi often explains his ideas by way of paradox, analogy, appropriation of ancient sayings,
repetition, symmetry, rhyme, and rhythm. In fact, the whole book can be read as an analogy
– the ruler is the awareness, or self, in meditation and the myriad creatures or empire
is the experience of the body, senses and desires.
The Tao Te Ching, often called simply Laozi after its reputed author, describes the Dao
as the source and ideal of all existence: it is unseen, but not transcendent, immensely
powerful yet supremely humble, being the root of all things. People have desires and free
will. Many act "unnaturally", upsetting the natural balance of the Dao. The Daodejing
intends to lead students to a "return" to their natural state, in harmony with Dao.
Language and conventional wisdom are critically assessed. Taoism views them as inherently
biased and artificial, widely using paradoxes to sharpen the point.
Livia Kohn provides an example of how Laozi encouraged a change in approach, or return
to "nature", rather than action. Technology may bring about a false sense of progress.
The answer provided by Laozi is not the rejection of technology, but instead seeking the calm
state of wu wei, free from desires. This relates to many statements by Laozi encouraging rulers
to keep their people in "ignorance", or "simple-minded". Some scholars insist this explanation ignores
the religious context, and others question it as an apologetic of the philosophical coherence
of the text. It would not be unusual political advice if Laozi literally intended to tell
rulers to keep their people ignorant. However, some terms in the text, such as "valley spirit"
and "soul", bear a metaphysical context and cannot be easily reconciled with a purely
ethical reading of the work. Wu wei, literally "non-action" or "not acting",
is a central concept of the Daodejing. The concept of wu wei is multifaceted, and reflected
in the words' multiple meanings, even in English translation; it can mean "not doing anything",
"not forcing", "not acting" in the theatrical sense, "creating nothingness", "acting spontaneously",
and "flowing with the moment." It is a concept used to explain ziran, or
harmony with the Dao. It includes the concepts that value distinctions are ideological and
seeing ambition of all sorts as originating from the same source. Laozi used the term
broadly with simplicity and humility as key virtues, often in contrast to selfish action.
On a political level, it means avoiding such circumstances as war, harsh laws and heavy
taxes. Some Taoists see a connection between wu wei and esoteric practices, such as zuowang
"sitting in oblivion" found in the Zhuangzi. Some of Laozi's famous sayings include:
"When goodness is lost, it is replaced by morality."
"The usefulness of a pot comes from its emptiness." "The best people are like water, which benefits
all things and does not compete with them. It stays in lowly places that others reject.
This is why it is so similar to the Way." "When people see some things as beautiful,
other things become ugly. When people see some things as good, other things become bad."
“Try to change it and you will ruin it. Try to hold it and you will lose it.”
"Those who know do not say. Those who say do not know."
"The journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step."
"The more that laws and regulations are given prominence, the more thieves and robbers there
will be."
Taoism
Laozi is traditionally regarded as the founder of Taoism, intimately connected with the Daodejing
and "primordial" Taoism. Popular Taoism typically presents the Jade Emperor as the official
head deity. Intellectual Taoists, such as the Celestial Masters sect, usually present
Laozi and the Three Pure Ones at the top of the pantheon of deities.
Influence
Eremitism Zhuāngzi is a central authority regarding
eremitism, a particular variation of monasticism sacrificing social aspects for religious aspects
of life. Zhuāngzi considered eremitism the highest ideal, if properly understood.
Scholars such as Aat Vervoorn have postulated that Zhuāngzi advocated a hermit immersed
in society. This view of eremitism holds that seclusion is hiding anonymously in society.
To a Zhuāngzi hermit, being unknown and drifting freely is a state of mind. This reading is
based on the "inner chapters" of the self-titled Zhuangzi.
Scholars such as James Bellamy hold that this could be true and has been interpreted similarly
at various points in Chinese history. However, the "outer chapters" of Zhuāngzi have historically
played a pivotal role in the advocacy of reclusion. While some scholars state that Laozi was the
central figure of Han Dynasty eremitism, historical texts do not seem to support that position.
Politics Potential officials throughout Chinese history
drew on the authority of non-Confucian sages, especially Laozi and Zhuangzi, to deny serving
any ruler at any time. Zhuangzi, Laozi's most famous follower in traditional accounts, had
a great deal of influence on Chinese literati and culture.
Political theorists influenced by Laozi have advocated humility in leadership and a restrained
approach to statecraft, either for ethical and pacifist reasons, or for tactical ends.
In a different context, various anti-authoritarian movements have embraced the Laozi teachings
on the power of the weak. Left-libertarians have been highly influenced
by Laozi as well. In his 1937 book Nationalism and Culture, the anarcho-syndicalist writer
and activist Rudolf Rocker praised Laozi's "gentle wisdom" and understanding of the opposition
between political power and the cultural activities of the people and community. In his 1910 article
for the Encyclopedia Britannica, Peter Kropotkin also noted that Laozi was among the earliest
exponents of essentially anarchist concepts. More recently, anarchists such as John P.
Clark and Ursula K. Le Guin have written about the conjunction between anarchism and Taoism
in various ways, highlighting the teachings of Laozi in particular. In her rendition of
the Tao Te Ching, Le Guin writes that Laozi "does not see political power as magic. He
sees rightful power as earned and wrongful power as usurped... He sees sacrifice of self
or others as a corruption of power, and power as available to anyone who follows the Way.
No wonder anarchists and Taoists make good friends."
The right-libertarian economist Murray Rothbard suggested that Laozi was the first libertarian,
likening Laozi's ideas on government to F.A. Hayek's theory of spontaneous order. James
A. Dorn agreed, writing that Laozi, like many 18th century liberals, "argued that minimizing
the role of government and letting individuals develop spontaneously would best achieve social
and economic harmony." Similarly, the Cato Institute's David Boaz includes passages from
the Daodejing in his 1997 book The Libertarian Reader. Philosopher Roderick Long, however,
argues that libertarian themes in Taoist thought are actually borrowed from earlier Confucian
writers. References
Footnotes
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Works by Lao Zi at Project Gutenberg Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Laozi
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Laozi Lǎozǐ Dàodéjīng Chinese + English + German,
verbatim + analogous “The Tao Teh King, or The Tao and its characteristics”,
English translation by James Legge. Scalable text on white, grey or black background. Downloadable
as a .txt file.