In the first episode of this series we examined the idea that the expansion of space causes
the red-shift we observe in all distant objects.
In this episode, we will look at an alternative idea where a property of matter is responsible
for causing a redshift which would be intrinsic to that object.
What if mass was not a fixed quantity but actually changes with time!
This is the theory of Variably Mass which Jayant Narlikar came up with and fits into
the Quasi Steady State Cosmology and may well be an alternative model to the Big Bang and
also fit in with Arp's idea of galaxy formation.
Let's dive in and find out more.
Quasi Steady State Cosmology
As we discussed in the last episode Friedmann and Lemaitre used Einstein's equations to
suggest that space itself was expanding.
Their idea is based on forcing the observed effect of a changing mass into the geometrical
tenses on the left-hand side of the equation.
This leads to an expansion of space and a curved nature.
Mathematicians teach that the proper way to solve an equation is to solve it in general
terms before any approximations are made.
After the general solution is made, approximations like m=constant can be made if suited to the
problem.
The results of the approximation which Friedmann made in 1922 was to force the observed effect
of the actually changing mass into the geometrical terms on the left-hand side of the equation.
This leads to many models of curved space-time.
But if the changing mass is explicitly expressed, there is no need for curved space-time.
In 1977 Narlikar generalised the equation of general relativity so that m=at^2 where
a is a constant.
This means that the particle's mass will vary with their age squared.
This solution leads to a flat space-time.
It is also much simpler to solve and does not require any relativity or tensor calculus.
Space remains fixed and does not expand.
Instead, the mass of the particles increases with time.
The Big Bang assumes all matter is created simultaneously.
In this theory, matter can be created at any time.
When it does the particles gain mass and their movement must decelerate in order to conserve
momentum.
If the mass of an electron jumping from an excited atomic orbit to a lower level is small,
then the energy of the photon of light emitted is also small- appearing to be red-shifted.
So how does Hoyle's & Narlikar's theory of variable mass work then?
Every particle in the universe derives its inertia from the rest of the particles in
the universe.
When an electron is just created, before it has had time to 'see' any other particles
in its vicinity, it will have zero mass.
As time goes on it gains signals from a volume of space expanding at the speed of light,
containing more and more particles.
The electron's mass grows in proportion to the number and strength of the signals it
receives.
Hoyle, Burbidge and Narlikar evolved the concept of the Steady-state theory and would allow
mini big bang events to occur anywhere bringing into the universe new matter.
These would be highly energetic events, and the Variable mass theory would allow for these
young objects to have high intrinsic red-shifts.
The important concept in this theory is that of matter creation and this distinguishes
itself from conventional models involving black holes and accretion disks.
The idea is that matter can only fall in and yet all observations show matter falling out!
The quantisation of the redshifts observed for the ejected material could well be related
to its periodic creation since the redshifts observed for the ejected material could well
be related to its periodic creation since the redshift depends directly on the particle
masses at the time they emit their photons received by us.
The epochs of creation would be imprinted on the particles, which would appear as steps
in the intrinsic Redshift.
These points of creation are linked with the centre of active galaxies and could almost
be considered a white hole.
The material that gets ejected would initially have zero mass so would be ejected at the
speed of light, essentially an energy wave with signal velocity.
It will be slowed down as it gains mass.
If it impinges on appreciable material on its way out of the ejecting galaxy, it could
due to its low mass, be trapped inside.
If it can coherently condense inside, it is possible that objects in different states
of evolution and different redshifts could be blown out together in subsequent expulsions.
In this theory, Quasars are the young ejected material from active galaxies.
The high red-shift in this theory is simply due to their young age.
As they age their redshift slowly reduces.
Although you might at first consider that the redshift apparent magnitude relationship
for galaxies proves the universe is expanding but distances to galaxies are large and the
light takes an appreciable time to travel to us, so we see the galaxies as they were
when the light left them, that is younger.
It turns out that for galaxies created at the same time, but seen at different distances,
this theory requires these galaxies, which are seen at younger stages, to have exactly
the same redshift as observed in the Hubble relation.
So the universe is not expanding in this model and there is no need for Dark matter or Dark
energy.
So why does the universe not collapse in this model if it is not expanding?
Narlikar pointed out that the new factor, the variable particle masses with time, produce
mass-dependent terms in the dynamical side of the equation which guarantees stability.
Another point to consider is that locally we run at the clock rate of our galaxy.
All dynamical equations and solutions are the same in the conventional and relativistic
solutions of the usual relativistic field equations.
If we look at another galaxy created more recently, their clocks appear to be running
slow and their matter appears redshifted.
As time goes on, the particle masses in the different galaxies exchange signals with more
and more matter and their clocks asymptotically approach the same rate.
This means you would expect to see the same slower decay rates for supernovae light curves
as in an expanding universe.
One point that is often objected to in this model is the evidence from pair creation of
electrons and positrons from photons in terrestrial laboratories does not produce low-mass electrons.
One answer to this is that these photons are localised packets of energy and the created
electrons and positrons are local entities not drawn from elsewhere in the universe.
In the theory of quantum electrodynamics which is used in these problems, it must be understood
that the mass of the electron is NOT given by the theory but must be derived by experiment
in order to introduce a scale length.
This implies that a longer scale length for the experiment should set a lower mass for
the electron.
As for the vexing problem of renormalisation, the theory encounters infrared divergences
as the photon's rest mass is allowed to approach zero.
The cloud of 'soft' photons approaches infinity.
Perhaps the longstanding difficulty of infinite electron mass from the theory of quantum electrodynamics
has been telling us something important about the connection of electron mass with the universe
at large!
This model introduces an ad hoc hypothesis, which satisfies Einsteinian physics, which
is: 'the mass of matter increases as the square of its age'.
Experimental evidence of the resonant frequency of a single aluminium ion has shown that over
a large sample the relative error of measurement was smaller than 5.2x10^-17.
Assuming these ions were created 10 billion years ago, the difference in age for these
ions is just 8.2s.
This raises the question about how and when the matter in our Solar System was created.
If it all came from material that was ejected from an active galaxy then this result may
indeed be what you would expect.
In this theory, it is at the centre of galaxies that we would see matter creation occurring.
We already see matter flowing outwards from the objects sat at the centre of galaxies.
If we examine M87 we can see that this matter is ejected at almost unbelievable speeds that
are 99% the speed of light.
Remember in special relativity as objects approach the speed of light their
mass increases meaning more and more energy is required to eject this material.
In this theory, the mass on initial creation is zero and only slowly increases allowing
it to achieve these unbelieve velocities.
Now, this is not to say that there aren't problems with the Quasi Steady State Model.
I will list some links that discuss some of the problems in more detail but they pertain
to how well the data fits the CMB data and the nucleosynthesis theory used.
These are outside the scope here as we are focussed on the red-shift mechanism.
Here though there are some assumptions this throws up that seems to not be mentioned.
When we examine very high redshift quasars and very high redshift galaxies their spectrum
appears different to those with lower values of redshift.
In 1970 Roger Lynds was observing quasar 4C 05.34.
At the time it was thought to be one of the furthest objects observed based on its red-shift.
He noted that it had an unusually large number of absorption lines in its spectrum.
He concluded that these absorption lines were all due to the same Lyman-alpha transition.
Jan Oort argued that the absorption features were due to absorption inside clouds of intergalactic
gas.
The Lyman-alpha absorption lines in the quasar spectra result from intergalactic gas through
which the galaxy or quasar light has travelled.
Since neutral hydrogen clouds in the intergalactic medium are at different degrees of red-shift
due to the varying distance, their absorption lines are observed at a range of wavelengths.
Each individual cloud leaves its fingerprint as an absorption line at a different position
in the observed spectrum.
This is called the Lyman-alpha forest.
If red-shift is intrinsically created through this variable mass theory then these strange
absorption lines must also be created by the quasar or galaxy.
No clear mechanism is provided for how this might work.
In this theory, the assumption is that as the material is ejected from an active galaxy
forming a quasar the mass of the particles slowly increases meaning its redshift reduces.
If we relate this back to our observations of quasars we see that this Lyman-alpha forest
is only present in highly red-shifted objects.
This means that if the lines were indeed created intrinsically by the young quasar this process
must also at some point turn off.
Again here no clear mechanism is provided for how this would work.
It is important to put into context that the concept of an expanding space equally lacks
a clearly defined mechanism.
Variable mass is also not able to explain the rotation curves of galaxies and in that
respect still requires something else to solve that problem.
As objects, like galaxies age, their matter increases in mass.
The majority of this matter is rotating around the galaxy.
In order to conserve momentum the matter must slow down.
This would mean as the matter ages it will slow down.
Assuming the standard laws of physics this creates an inward spiralling orbit for the
matter in the galaxy.
This would mean that galaxies should collapse in on themselves.
this is not what is observed.
This is an interesting concept that matches a lot of the available data but not all and
does suffer from some significant gaps.
It also does not really explain the K-effect, nor the solar limb but is an alternative for
cosmological redshift and would explain the finger of god as well as the discordant redshifts
in galaxy clusters and would lead to a different evolution of galaxies.
I hope you've enjoyed this dive into the Quasi-steady state model
and in particular, focusing on the variable mass hypothesis side of it
In the next parts, we will continue this journey looking at other alternative mechanisms
that could be responsible for creating the red-shift we see
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