Psyllium , or Ispaghula , is the common name used for several members of the plant genus
Plantago whose seeds are used commercially for the production of mucilage.
History The genus Plantago contains over 200 species.
P. ovata and P. psyllium are produced commercially in several European countries, the former
Soviet Union and India. Plantago seed, known commercially as black, French, or Spanish
psyllium, is obtained from P. psyllium L., also known as P. arenaria. Seed produced from
P. ovata is known in trading circles as white or blonde psyllium, Indian plantago, or Isabgol.
Isabgol, the common name in India for P. ovata, comes from the Persian words asp and gul,
meaning "horse flower," which is descriptive of the shape of the seed. India dominates
the world market in the production and export of psyllium. Psyllium research and field trials
in the U.S. have been conducted mainly in Arizona and Washington state.
Health effects of dietary psyllium Several studies point to a cholesterol reduction
attributed to a diet that includes dietary fiber such as psyllium. Research published
in The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition concludes that the use of soluble-fiber cereals
is an effective and well-tolerated part of a prudent diet for the treatment of mild to
moderate hypercholesterolemia. Although the cholesterol-reducing and glycemic-response
properties of psyllium-containing foods are fairly well documented, the effect of long-term
inclusion of psyllium in the diet has not been determined.
Choking is a hazard if psyllium is taken without adequate water as it thickens in the throat.
Cases of allergic reaction to psyllium-containing cereal have also been documented.
Uses Psyllium is mainly used as a dietary fiber,
which is not absorbed by the small intestine. The purely mechanical action of psyllium mucilage
absorbs excess water while stimulating normal bowel elimination. Although its main use has
been as a laxative, it is more appropriately termed a true dietary fiber and as such can
help reduce the symptoms of both constipation and mild diarrhea. The laxative properties
of psyllium are attributed to the fiber absorbing water and subsequently softening the stool.
It is also one of the few laxatives that does not promote flatulence.
Psyllium is produced mainly for its mucilage content. The term mucilage describes a group
of clear, colorless, gelling agents derived from plants. The mucilage obtained from psyllium
comes from the seed coat. Mucilage is obtained by mechanical milling/grinding of the outer
layer of the seed. Mucilage yield amounts to about 25% of the total seed yield. Plantago-seed
mucilage is often referred to as husk, or psyllium husk. The milled seed mucilage is
a white fibrous material that is hydrophilic, meaning that its molecular structure causes
it to attract and bind to water. Upon absorbing water, the clear, colorless, mucilaginous
gel that forms increases in volume by tenfold or more.
The United States is the world's largest importer of psyllium husk, with over 60% of total imports
going to pharmaceutical firms for use in products such as Metamucil. In Australia, psyllium
husk is used to make Bonvit psyllium products. In the UK, ispaghula husk is used in the popular
constipation remedy Fybogel. Psyllium mucilage is also used as a natural dietary fiber for
animals. The dehusked seed that remains after the seed coat is milled off is rich in starch
and fatty acids, and is used as chicken and cattle feed.
Psyllium mucilage possesses several other desirable properties. As a thickener, it has
been used in ice cream and frozen desserts. A 1.5% weight/volume ratio of psyllium mucilage
exhibits binding properties that are superior to a 10% weight/volume ratio of starch mucilage.
The viscosity of psyllium mucilage dispersions are relatively unaffected between temperatures
of 20 and 50 °C, by pH from 2 to 10 and by salt concentrations up to 0.15 M. These
physical properties, along with its status as a natural dietary fiber, may lead to increased
use of psyllium by the food-processing industry. Technical-grade psyllium has been used as
a hydrocolloidal agent to improve water retention for newly seeded grass areas, and to improve
transplanting success with woody plants. It is suggested that the isabgol husk is a
suitable carrier for the sustained release of drugs and is also used as a gastroretentive
carrier due to its swellable and floatable nature. The mucilage of isabgol is used as
a super disintegrant in many formulations. Growth habit
Plantago ovata is an annual herb that grows to a height of 30–46 cm. Leaves are opposite,
linear or linear lanceolate 1 cm × 19 cm. The root system has a well-developed tap root
with few fibrous secondary roots. A large number of flowering shoots arise from the
base of the plant. Flowers are numerous, small, and white. Plants flower about 60 days after
planting. The seeds are enclosed in capsules that open at maturity.
Environmental requirements Climate
P. ovata is a 119- to 130-day crop that responds well to cool, dry weather. In India, P. ovata
is cultivated mainly in North Gujarat as a "Rabi" or post–rainy season crop. During
this season, which follows the monsoons, average temperatures are in the range of 15–30 °C,
and moisture is deficient. Isabgol, which has a moderate water requirement, is given
5 to 6 light irrigations. A very important environmental requirement of this crop is
clear, sunny and dry weather preceding harvest. High night temperature and cloudy wet weather
close to harvest have a large negative impact on yield. Rainfall on the mature crop may
result in shattering and therefore major field losses.
Soil Isabgol grows best on light, well drained,
sandy loams. The nutrient requirements of the crop are low. In northern Gujarat, the
soil tends to be low in nitrogen and phosphorus and high in potash with a pH between 7.2 and
7.9. Nitrogen trials under these conditions have shown a maximum seed yield response with
the addition of 22 kg/hectare of nitrogen. Seed preparation and germination
P. ovata has small seeds; 1,000 seeds weigh less than 2 grams. Under ideal conditions
of adequate moisture and low temperature 10 to 20 °C, 30% of seeds germinate in 5 to
8 days. The seed shows some innate dormancy following harvest. Attempts to eliminate this
dormancy period by scarification, or by exposure to wet or dry heat, cold, ethylene, or carbon
dioxide, are ineffective. Post-dormancy seeds show reliable germination in excess of 90%
at 29 °C, with lower rates of germination as temperature is increased.
Cultivation The fields are generally irrigated prior to
seeding to achieve ideal soil moisture, to enhance seed soil contact, and to avoid burying
the seed too deeply as a result of later irrigations or rainfall. Maximum germination occurs at
a seeding depth of 6 mm. Emerging seedlings are frost sensitive; therefore, planting should
be delayed until conditions are expected to remain frost free. Seed is broadcast at 5.5
to 8.25 kg/hectare in India. In Arizona trials, seeding rates of 22 to 27.5 kg/ha resulted
in stands of 1 plant/25mm in 15 cm rows produced excellent yields. Weed control is normally
achieved by one or two hand weedings early in the growing season. Control of weeds by
pre-plant irrigation that germinates weed seeds followed by shallow tillage may be effective
on fields with minimal weed pressure. Psyllium is a poor competitor with most weed species.
Plantago wilt and downy mildew are the major diseases of Isabgol. White grubs and aphids
are the major insect pests. The flower spikes turn reddish brown at ripening,
the lower leaves dry and the upper leaves yellow. The crop is harvested in the morning
after the dew is gone to minimize shattering and field losses. In India, mature plants
are cut 15 cm above the ground and then bound, left for a few days to dry, thrashed, and
winnowing. Harvested seed must be dried below 12% moisture
to allow for cleaning, milling, and storage. Seed stored for future crops has shown a significant
loss in viability after 2 years in storage. Yield potential and performance results
The contract price for 95% purity psyllium husk set by the Indian Basic Chemical, Pharmaceutical
and Cosmetic Export Promotion Council for April 1988 was $1.65/lb F.O.B.. This price
is up from $1.14/lb set in 1985. The average seed yield of P. ovata in India often exceeds
1 tonne/hectare. Net yield of 95% purity husk after milling would be 275 kg/ha. Average
gross revenue from milled product at 1988 prices would be $412/acre. The costs of production
and milling in the U.S. are unknown but would certainly need to be determined in order to
analyze the potential profitability of a commercial psyllium venture.
See also Psyllium seed husks
Metamucil Notes
References Abraham, Z.D. and T. Mehta. 1988. Three-week
psyllium husk supplementation: Effect on plasma cholesterol concentrations, fecal steroid
excretion, and carbohydrate absorption in men. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 47(1):67–74.
Anderson, J.R., K. Bukhave, L. Hojgaard, J. Rasmussen, N. Hermansen, H. Worning and E.
Krag 1988. Decomposition of wheat bran and isabgol husk in the stomach and small intestine
of healthy men. J. Nutr. 118(3):326–331. Anderson, J.W., D. Deakins, T. Floore, B.
Smith, S. Whitis. 1990. Dietary fiber and coronary heart disease. Crit. Rev. Food Sci.
Nutr. 29(2):95–147. Bell, L.P., K. Hectorn, H. Reynolds, D. Hunninghake.
1990. Cholesterol-lowering effects of soluble-fiber cereals as part of a prudent diet for patients
with mild to moderate hypercholesterolemia. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 52(6):1020–1026.
Bhagat, N.R. 1980. Studies on variation and association among seed yield and some component
traits in Plantago ovata Forsk. Crop Improv. 7:60–63.
Chan, J.K.C. and V. Wypyszyk. 1988. A forgotten natural dietary fiber: psyllium mucilloid.
Cereal Foods World 33(11):919–922. Chastagner, G.A., J. Ogawa, K. Sammeta. 1978.
Cause and control of damping off of Plantago ovata. Plant Disease Reporter 62:929–932.
Costa, M.A., T. Mehta, J. Males. 1989. Effects of dietary cellulose, psyllium husk and cholesterol
level on fecal and colonic microbial metabolism in monkeys. J. Nutr. 119(7):986- 992.
Czarnecki, M. and L. Golez. 1987. Influence of mineral fertilization on yield and nutrient
absorption in Plantago psyllium L. Herba Pol 31(3/4):167-174.
Gupta, R. 1982. Recent advances in cultivation of Isabgol in India. In Cultivation and Utilization
of Medicinal Plants. C.K. Atal and B.M. Kapar eds. Pages 406- 417.
Lantner, R.R., B. Espiritu, P. Zumerchik, M. Tobin. 1990. Anaphylaxis following ingestion
of a psyllium-containing cereal. J.A.M.A.J. Am. Med. Assoc. 264(19):2534–2536.
Liebman, B. 1988. The laxative that lowers cholesterol. Nutr. Action Health Letter 15(9):9.
Mathur, D.P., B. Rangarajan, V. Gupta. 1990. Psyllium production and marketing in India.
New Delhi: Oxford and IBH Pub. Co. 167 pp. McNeil, D.L. 1989. Factors affecting the field
establishment of Plantago ovata Forsk. in northern Australia. Trop. Agric. 66(1):61–64.
Jain, Manoj Kumar,1976. Psyllium. Ahmedabad, India 93749 78709.
Modi, S.M., K. Mehta, and R. Gupta. 1974. Isabgol, a dollar earner of North Gujarat.
Indian Farming 23(10):17–19. Psyasyatskene, A.A. and Y. Vaichyunene. 1987.
Plantains in the Lithuanian S.S.R.: Specific growth of local species and species being
introduced and mucilage localization in their organs. I. in Russian: Abstract in English
in Hort Abstracts. Rubis, D.D. 1990. Personal communique in regard
to Plantago and psyllium. Russell, T.E. 1975. Plantago wilt. Phytopathology
65:359–360. Samra, J.S. and B. Gill. 1986. Seed yield
of Isabgol as influenced by doses and sources of nitrogen. J. Res. Punjab Agric. Univ. 23(4):557–560.
Stewart, R.B., W. Jale, M. Moore, F. May, R. Marks. 1991. Effect of psyllium hydrophilic
mucilloid on serum cholesterol in the elderly. Dig. Dis. Sci. 36(3):329–334.
The Herb Market Report. 1990. anon. 6(1). Wolever, T.M.S., V. Vuksan, H. Eshuis, P.
Spafadora, R. Peterson, E. Chao, M. Storey, and D. Jenkins. 1991. Effect of method of
administration of psyllium on glycemic response and carbohydrate digestibility. J. Am. Coll.
Nutr. 10(4):364–371. External links
USDA Plants Profile: Plantago ovata Forsk. USDA Germplasm Resources Information Network:
Plantago ovata Forsk. CalPhotos: Plantago ovata
ITIS Standard Report: Plantago ovata Forsk. National Institute of Health Medline Plus:
Psyllium USDA Plants Profile: Plantago psyllium L.
USDA Germplasm Resources Information Network: Plantago psyllium L.