Few episodes of the Mongol conquests are as well known as Jebe Noyan and Subutai Ba’atar’s
famed pursuit of the Khwarezm-Shah Muhammad and expedition into southern Russia. In this
video, we will introduce these two generals, then look at the pursuit of the Shah and battles
in the Caucasus, in a separate video detailing the Rus’ and the battle of the Kalka River
in 1223, and later Subutai’s encounter with the Volga Bulghars.
Jebe was originally named Jirqo’dai of the Besut, vassals to the Taychiut tribe who fought
for Jamuhka, Chinggis Khan’s main rival for Mongolia. At the battle of Koyiten in
1201, Chinggis defeated Jamuhka and the Taychiut, but in the battle Jirqo’dai shot Chinggis’
horse with an arrow. According to the Secret History of the Mongols, afterwards Jirqo’adai
came forward and admitted responsibility, informing the Khan that if he was spared,
he would serve him faithfully. His offer was accepted, and was given the name Jebe, meaning
arrow, and took a lead role in the campaigns against the Jin Dynasty, and crushed Kuchlug
the Naiman in 1218. Jebe was brave, often taking vanguard roles and leading from the
front.
Subutai Ba’atar, the most famous Mongol general, was a master of warfare who fought
across China, Central Asia, Iran, the Caucasus, Russia and Eastern Europe. From the Uriyangqat
tribe, closely related to Chinggis Khan’s own Mongols, his family had knownChinggis’
for several generations: their great-great-grandfathers, Tumbinai Sechen and Nerbi. Subutai entered
Chinggis’ service around 1203, while Chinggis was at Lake Baljuna. His older brother also
fought for the Khan, but died fighting the Naiman around 1204, and Subutai inherited
his position as commander of 100, and soon rose in rank.
In March 1220, our generals were despatched to hunt down the fleeing ruler of the Khwarezmian
Empire, Shah Muhammad II. When Chinggis Khan struck in autumn 1219, Shah Muhammad was in
Balkh, expecting the Mongols to be unable to overcome the walls of his cities or pass
the great rivers of Transoxania, the Syr Darya and Amu Darya. Experienced from their war
against the Jin Dynasty in China, and bringing Chinese siege engineers and weapons, the walls
were breached and the rivers crossed. By February 1220, Chinggis Khan took Bukhara, one of the
region's most important cities, and soon after Shah Muhammad fled Balkh, reaching Nishapur
that April.
At the Shah’s capital of Samarkand, which fell to Chinggis in March, the Great Khan
learned of the Shah’s flight, and despatched Jebe with a tumen in pursuit, followed by
Subutai who was in turn supported by Chinggis’ son-in-law Toquchar.
Shah Muhammad left Nishapur after learning the Mongols had crossed the Amu Darya. The
Mongols first took the submission of a few cities like Balkh and Sarakhs, taking local
guides. It seems there was an order to avoid sieges and plundering for speed in this part
of the expedition, or at least against those who submitted. Herat offered its submission,
yet Toquchar raided its territory, the most extreme breach of discipline in the whole
campaign, and Toquchar was demoted. In May 1220 they reached Nishapur, which submitted.
Perhaps its light treatment by the Mongols misled Nishapur, and it revolted that summer,
Toquchar killed outside of their walls in November. As punishment, the population was
slaughtered by Tolui in 1221.
Shah Muhammad’s flight from Nishapur, accompanied by his son Jalal al-Din, forced Jebe and Subutai
to split up: Jebe travelled to Juvain, then to Mazandaran, while Subutai took his army
through Jam on to Tus and Qumish. In Tus, many villages and towns freely submitted,
while Jebe’s campaign through Mazandaran was very destructive. There Jebe captured
Shah Muhammad’s mother, Terken Khatun, his young children and his harem. Terken Khatun
was sent to Mongolia, where she died around 1232, one of Muhammad’s daughters was given
to Chagatai, while the male children were put to death.
Jebe and Subutai reconvened at Rayy, finding the Shah’s trail. His western route was
hampered by the antagonism between him and the Caliph, who he had tried to attack in
1217,, while, one of the Shah’s atabegs suggested he go to Luristan, and raise an
army there, but ultimately sped to Hamadan.
Here we are once more given contradictory accounts: Ibn al-Athir states the Shah fled
Hamadan before the Mongols arrived, while Juvaini has the Mongols narrowly miss him
with arrows before he fled to Sar-Chahan. Nasawi however, includes a battle between
the Mongols and the Shah on the plain of Dawlatabad near Hamadan, if true the only battle between
the Shah and the Mongols during the entire campaign.
Yet, around Hamadan the Mongols lost him. Muhammad fled to the Caspian Sea, jumping
along islands on the coast until he died, likely of pneumonia, in winter 1220. Delirious
in his last hours, he changed his heir from Uzlagh-Shah to his eldest son, Jalal al-Din,
appointed titles and lands which were no longer his to give, before succumbing to sickness
and sheer mental and physical exhaustion.
Winter 1220 was harsh with heavy snowfalls, which Jebe and Subutai spent on the Mughan
plain. It is unclear when they learned of Shah Muhammad’s death, or whether they had
even given up on finding him by this point. Some medieval authors have Jebe and Subutai
requesting permission from Chinggis at this point to continue their conquests, while in
others gave them permission from the outset. In 1221 they turned to the Caucasus.
Here it will be useful to provide some context for the thirteenth century Caucasus and neighbouring
area. This mountainous region was dominated since the 12th century by the Kingdom of Georgia,
which had since the reign of King David the Builder developed a strong military and fortress
system, noted for their heavy infantry and cavalry which resisted repeated Seljuq invasions.
Greater Armenia was under Georgian rule, and sometimes Georgian armies of this period are
called ‘Armeno-Georgian.’ Much of Azerbaijan was ruled through Georgia’s vassals, the
muslim Shirvanshahs. South of the Shirvanshahs were the Ildiguzids, originally Seljuq appointees,
and long time foes of Georgia. To the west were the Seljuqs of Rum, and the Armenian
ruled Kingdom of Cilicia in southeastern Turkey. Syria was ruled by great Salah ad-din’s
(Saladin) Ayyubid successors, while in Iraq was the Abbasid Caliph and regional atabegs.
Finally, north of the Caucasus were nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples like the Qipchaqs
or Alans.
Jebe and Subutai fought the Georgians at least twice, though when and where is disputed.
The first engagement occurred around February 1221, possibly near the Georgian capital of
Tbilisi or in the Arran region, north of the Mughan plain. Either way, it was a crushing
defeat for the Georgians. In spring, Jebe and Subutai were south, due to revolt and
murder of their appointees in Iran. Maragha, Hamadan, Nakhichevan, Ardabil, Sarab and Bailakan
were all attacked, and the Eldiguzid atabeg, Ozbeg, submitted to them, ignoring Georgian
requests for alliance against the Mongols. Later that summer, the Georgian city of Ganja
was attacked, and shortly thereafter, they confronted the Georgian army led by King George
Lasha and his atabeg Iwane Zak’arian. On the River Kotman, the Georgian army caught
Subutai with only a part of the Mongol force and he fled the might of Georgia towards the
Khunan Valley. The disciplined Georgians pursued, not realizing they were falling for that favourite
Mongol ploy: the feigned retreat. Jebe and 5,000 warriors fell upon the rear of the Georgian
army, and the King and the atabeg narrowly escaped.
By this point, perhaps early autumn, Jebe and Subutai knew the Shah was dead, and had
they sent messengers to Chinggis they would have returned by now, allowing them to move
on, turning north again, possibly in order to subdue the Qipchaq tribes: Subutai and
Jochi had fought them several years before, for some had allied with Merkits fleeing Mongolia.
Harbouring Mongol enemies was often a cause for conflict, and the Mongol Empire was still
very much a steppe power. By now the only challenger to the Mongols’ steppe control
was the great Qicphaq-Cuman confederation.
Jebe and Subutai possibly spent winter 1221 on the Mughan plain again, and in 1222, advanced
north, bypassing Georgia proper, either because the Georgians had a powerful army readied,
or none at all, and the Mongols were more interested in the pass of Derbent. In Shirvan
they sacked Shamakhi, where supposedly they built a ramp from corpses of livestock and
locals, fighting over the walls until their ramp decomposed and collapsed.
At Derbent, they were unable to force the passage. Derbent was a city marked by the
great citadel, tucked between the edge of the Caucasus range and the Caspian Sea, unable
to be forced without great loss. Jebe and Subutai instead asked the Shah of Derbent
to send envoys to discuss terms. One envoy was killed, and the other forced to lead them
through the mountains. The route was a difficult one, but soon the Mongols were through the
Greater Caucasus and on the edge of the great Eurasian steppe, where they found an army
of Qipchaqs and Alans waiting for them, perhaps notified by the Shah of Derbent. Jebe and
Subutai’s tired force was outnumbered, trapped between the mountains and the army before
them.
But where the sword fails, words make do. Jebe and Subutai sent envoys to the turkic
Qipchaqs, asking why peoples of shared heritage should fight each other. Probably more convincing
were the valuable gifts given, and the Qipchaqs abandoned the coalition. With the Qipchaq
gone, Jebe and Subutai fell upon the isolated Alans, and then caught their Qipchaq ‘brothers’
and crushed them too. Some Qipchaq escaped and flew west, to the unsuspecting principalities
of the Rus’, the Mongols hot in pursuit. The Russian peoples were about to meet the
Mongols for the first time.
This ends the first part in our series with Jebe and Subutai. When we next return to our
valiant friends, we will look at the famous Battle on the Kalka River, and then the ambush
by the Volga Bulghars. Possibly before then we may look at the siege of Gurganj, but we’ll
keep our options open. In future, we will also discuss the incorporation of Georgia
and the neighbouring kingdoms into the Mongol Empire.