Andragogy consists of teaching strategies focused on adults. It is often interpreted
as the process of engaging adult learners with the structure of learning experience.
Definitions Two primary understandings of ‘andragogy’
currently exist: The science of understanding and supporting
lifelong and life-wide education of adults. In the tradition of Malcolm Knowles, a specific
theoretical and practical approach, based on a humanistic conception of self-directed
and autonomous learners and teachers as facilitators of learning.
Interpreted broadly throughout the academic literature, the term also invites such definitions
as ‘adult education practice,’ ‘desirable values,’ ‘specific teaching methods,’
‘reflections,’ and ‘academic discipline,' with many authors claiming it to be better
than traditional adult education. The term has been used by some to allow discussion
of contrast between self-directed and 'taught' education.
History Originally used by Alexander Kapp in 1833,
andragogy was developed into a theory of adult education by Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy and was
popularized in the US by American educator Malcolm Knowles. Knowles asserted that andragogy
should be distinguished from the more commonly used pedagogy.
Knowles collected ideas about a theory of adult education from the end of WWII until
he was introduced to the term "andragogy." In 1966, Knowles met Dusan Savicevic in Boston.
Savicevic shared the term andragogy with Knowles, and explained how it was used in the European
context. In 1967, Knowles made use of the term "androgogy" to explain his theory of
adult education. Then, after consulting Merriam-Webster, he corrected the spelling of the term to "andragogy"
and continued to make use of the term to explain his collection of ideas about adult learning.
Knowles' theory can be stated with six assumptions related to motivation of adult learning:
Need to know: Adults need to know the reason for learning something.
Foundation: Experience provides the basis for learning activities.
Self-concept: Adults need to be responsible for their decisions on education; involvement
in the planning and evaluation of their instruction. Readiness: Adults are most interested in learning
subjects having immediate relevance to their work and/or personal lives.
Orientation: Adult learning is problem-centered rather than content-oriented.
Motivation: Adults respond better to internal versus external motivators.
In most countries of Europe the Knowles discussion played, at best, a marginal role. ‘Andragogy’
was, from 1970 on, connected with the in existence coming academic and professional institutions,
publications, programs, triggered by a similar growth of adult education in practice and
theory as in the USA. ‘Andragogy’ functioned here as a header for systematic reflections,
parallel to other academic headers like ‘biology’, ‘medicine’, ‘physics’. Examples of
this use of andragogy are the Yugoslavian journal for adult education, named ‘Andragogija’
in 1969; and the ‘Yugoslavian Society for Andragogy’; at Palacky University in Olomouc
in 1990 the 'Katedra sociologie an andragogiky' was established. Also Prague University has
a ‘Katedra Andragogiky’; in 1993, Slovenia’s ‘Andragoski Center Republike Slovenije'
was founded with the journal ‘Andragoska Spoznanja’; in 1995, Bamberg University
named a ‘Lehrstuhl Andragogik’. On this formal level ‘above practice’
and specific approaches, the term andragogy could be used relating to all types of theories,
for reflection, analysis, training, in person-oriented programs as well as human resource development.
Academic discipline In the field of adult education during recent
decades, a process of growth and differentiation emerged as a scholarly and scientific approach,
andragogy. Andragogy refers to the academic discipline(s) within university programs that
focus on the education of adults; andragogy exists today worldwide. The term refers to
a new type of education which was not qualified by missions and visions, but by academic learning
including: reflection, critique,and historical analyses.
Dusan Savicevic, who provided Knowles with the term andragogy, explicitly claim andragogy
as a discipline, the subject of which is the study of education and learning of adults
in all its forms of expression’. Recent research has expanded andragogy into
the online world, finding that using collaborative tools like a wiki can encourage learners to
become more self-directed, thereby enriching the classroom environment.
Critique Knowles himself changed his position on whether
andragogy really applied only to adults and came to believe that "pedagogy-andragogy represents
a continuum ranging from teacher-directed to student-directed learning and that both
approaches are appropriate with children and adults, depending on the situation." Hanson
argues that the difference in learning is not related to the age and stage of one's
life, but instead related to individual characteristics and the differences in "context, culture and
power" within different educational settings. In another critique of Knowles' work, Knowles'
was not able to use one of his principles with adult learners to the extent that he
describes in his practices. In one course, Knowles appears to allow "near total freedom
in learner determination of objectives" but still "intended" the students to choose from
a list of 18 objectives on the syllabus. Self-concept can be critiqued not just from the instructor's
point of view, but also from the student's point of view. Not all adult learners will
know exactly they want to learn in a course and may seek a more structured outline from
an instructor. An instructor cannot assume that an adult will desire self-directed learning
in every situation. J.R. Kidd goes further by claiming that principles
of learning have to be applied to lifelong development. He suggested that building a
theory on adult learning would be meaningless, as there is no real basis for it. P. Jarvis
even implies that andragogy would be more the result of an ideology than a scientific
contribution to the comprehension of the learning processes. Knowles himself mentions that andragogy
is a "model of assumptions about learning or a conceptual framework that serves as a
basis for an emergent theory." There appears to be a lack of research on whether this framework
of teaching and learning principles is more relevant to adult learners or if it is just
a set of good practices that could be used for both children and adult learners.
References
Further reading Bowe, Brian J.; Hoewe, Jennifer; Zeldes, Geri
Alumit. An Andragogical Approach to Developing Dialogic Learning through Wikis. Middle East
Media Educator vol. 1 issue 2. Knowles, Malcolm; Holton, E. F., III; Swanson,
R. A.. The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource development.
Burlington, MA: Elsevier. ISBN 0750678372. LCCN 2004024356.
Knowles, Malcolm. The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy. Wilton,
Connecticut: Association Press. ISBN 0695814729. LCCN 80014344.
Loeng, S.. Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy – an andragogical pioneer. Studies in Continuing
Education, doi:10.1080/0158037X.2012.749850 Merriam, Sharran B.; Caffarella, Rosemary;
Baumgartner, Lisa. Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
ISBN 0787975885. LCCN 2006019145. Reischmann, Jost: Andragogy. In: English,
Leona: International Encyclopedia of Adult Education. London: Palgrave Macmillan. S.
58-63. Roberts, Michael. "Applying the Andragogical
Model of Adult Learning: A Case Study of the Texas Comptroller's Fiscal Management Division".
Applied Research Project. Texas State University. Smith, M. K. 'Andragogy', in the Encyclopaedia
of Informal Education. Sopher, M. J.. An historical biography of
Malcolm S. Knowles: The remaking of an adult educator. University of Wisconsin-Madison,
Department of Continuing, Adult and Vocational Education.
Thorpe, Mary; Edwards, Richard; Hanson, Ann. Culture and processes of adult learning. Routledge.