The Roman republic during the mid-second century BC was at a pivotal point in its history.
It was a time of historical occurrences which initiated processes that would eventually bring
about the downfall of the Republican system and its eventual replacement by the Principate.
One of the major catalysts of this historical process was a man who went by the name of
Gaius Marius. Born in 157 BC,
Marius was the son of an Italian family without sufficient connections or illustrious ancestry.
His humble credentials though could not match his immense ambitions.
Little is recorded about his early years, but we do know that by the time he was 23 years old,
Marius was able to join the personal legion of the famous Roman General,Scipio Aemilianus,
the victor of the third punic war, and campaign with him against the Numantians in 134 BC.
There Marius was able to prove his qualities, distinguishing himself in bravery and honesty.
According to a famous story that is mentioned by Plutarch, when Scipio was asked where the
Roman people would find a man to replace him, he tapped young Marius on the shoulder and said,
“Perhaps, this is the man” . After the successful conclusion of the
Numantian campaign, Marius stood for election as a military tribune. It is not exactly clear what
he did during his term as tribune, but he most likely spent his year in the Balearic Islands,
under the command of one member of the famous and powerful family of the Metelli, to whom Marius was
a hereditary client, helping them win a triumph.
The Corsus honorum was now open for young Marius.
Until that point in history, Rome did not directly control the area
between the Alps and the Pyrenees. Subsequently, the protection of this
area was assigned to Massilia. An ally and trading partner of Rome
since the early days of the Republic. In 125 BC, Massilia was attacked by a
Gallic tribe and requested help from Rome. As a result, the Senate dispatched legions north.
There the now questor, Gaius Marius, would see for the first time action with northern tribes.
The historical records are sketchy, but we do know that after years of inconclusive fighting, the
Romans would repulse the Gauls and establish their first military colony called Aquae Sextiae.
Defeated by the Romans, the Gauls made a huge coalition and descended upon the legions.
The climax of the war came in the summer of 121 BC. The Romans met the enormous Gallic coalition
a few miles north of Aquae Sextiae, next to the Isere River.
Roman sources estimate the Gallic forces at around 180.000 men, but that’s probably
an overestimation. The Roman forces are not recorded but were definitely fewer in numbers.
The battle of the Isere River turned out to be a great victory for the Romans
that enabled them to establish a permanent foothold over southern Gaul.
Marius was now a seasoned veteran, having participated in wars both in Spain and Gaul.
His military prowess coupled with the backing of his patron family, the Metelli,
enabled him to secure the office of the Tribune of the Plebs.
His considerable abilities as a soldier though were not equalled by his political instinct.
During his term, Marius introduced a bill to redesign the voting stalls despite the objections
of his Metelli patrons. This was done because at Roman elections, during the voting process it was
common practice for powerful patron families to confront their clients just before they deposited
their ballots in the ballot box in order to ensure that the clients voted the “correct” way.
Marius’s law narrowed the passage down that voters passed to cast their votes
to prevent such confrontations from happening. A Metelli Consul urged the Senate to condemn
Marius’s actions but Marius demonstrated his incorruptibility
by threatening the consul with imprisonment! Even though the Consul would eventually back down,
Marius’ actions were inevitably distancing him from his powerful patrons.
Despite angering his senatorial colleagues, Marius would refuse to cater to the urban Plebs
by vetoing a very popular grain bill exclaiming that these kinds of handouts were ruining
the moral fibre of the Republic… Thus, during his short term,
Marius managed to alienate both the Urban poor and his powerful senatorial patrons.
In either 118 or 117 BC, Marius would attempt to ascend the Corsus Honorum
by running for the Aedilship. But it soon became clear that his
vote totals were worryingly small. Marius withdrew his name and put it for junior aedileship instead.
This was highly irregular but not illegal. Despite his gamble though,
Marius was dealt a second humiliating defeat. The young man’s political career seemed finished,
but a new front was about to open in Africa that would offer Marius a way out of obscurity…
Numidia was a north African kingdom allied to the Romans.
The Numidians were renowned for their horsemanship, and their cavalry had served
the Romans as auxiliaries for almost a century. In 133 BC, the Romans requested from the Numidians
to provide auxiliary units for the conquest of Numantia.
During that period, Numidia was ruled by a man named Micipsa.
King Micipsa willingly obliged by sending a detachment of Numidians that
were led by his illegitimate nephew Jugurtha. Jugurtha was initially considered a viable heir
to the throne of Numidia, but when Micipsa had sons of his own, Jugurtha became a liability.
Sending him to fight and possibly die for Rome seemed like the perfect solution to this problem.
The young prince though distinguished himself while campaigning in Numantia.
His unique character traits, courage, and sharpness of mind impressed the Romans
who quickly became fond of him. After the Numantian campaign, Scipio
Aemilianus disbanded his auxiliary units and just before he departed to Rome himself, took Jugurtha
into his tent. After praising him in the highest terms before his soldiers, he privately advised
him to cultivate the friendship of the Roman people at large rather than that of individuals.
Dissuading him from using bribery to get his way, Scipio exclaimed “ It is dangerous
to buy from a few what belongs to the many”. Presumably, the Roman general had noticed
a pattern in Jugurthas behaviour… Micipsa was now unable to get rid of Jugurtha,
especially since he was now approved and even admired by the Romans.
Seeing no other way to settle the matter, Micipsa embraced Jugurtha
appointing him as one of his heirs along with his two other sons, Hiempsal and Adherbal.
When Micipsa died in 118 BC, Jugurtha had no intentions of
sharing the throne with his half brothers. The cunning Jugurtha murdered Hiempsal
thus triggering an open conflict with Adherbal. Jugurtha then faced and promptly defeated
Adherbal in open battle forcing him to flee to Rome for help.
While in Rome the two sides were pointing fingers. The Senate debated the matter and eventually
decided that Numidia would be divided into two parts- the interior went to Jugurtha and the
coastal regions to Adherbal. The
strenuous coexistence between the two half-brothers lasted for only
three years ending with Juguratha’s eventual declaration of war against Adherbal, in 113 BC.
The wayward Numidian was once again able to defeat Adherlbal in battle forcing him to retreat within
the walls of his capital, the city of Cirta. In a desperate final bid for help,
Adherbal appealed again to Rome. With far bigger concerns at their northern borders,
the Senate did not send military aid to Adherbal but instead dispatched yet another commission.
While the leader of the commission did warn Jugurtha against any further military
action, it was clear from his conduct that the Romans were not willing to send
any military aid to the besieged Adherbal.
At the same time, the Romans advised Adherbal to surrender to Jugurtha and submit to whatever
settlement the Senate would decree. But, after the commission departed for Rome,
Jugurtha had already sensed weakness and was unflinchingly willing to exploit it.
When the unfortunate Adherbal opened the gates and surrendered to Jugurthat,
he was captured and summarily executed. This could have been the end of the matter,
but Jugurtha then made a grave mistake by allowing his troops to plunder Cirta, and kill
both soldiers and civilians indiscriminately. Among the thousands of dead during the sacking of
the City were several Roman merchants who had previously helped Adherbal defend the city.
Rome could not ignore the slaughter of its citizens.
While all these were transpiring In Numidia, Gaius Marius was trying to
re-establish himself in Roman politics. In 116 BC he tried his luck at an even higher
office, running for praetor. Despite his previous failure
and his alienation from the powerful Metelli, the fortune seeker was able to win the last spot.
His victory was so unprecedented given his previous debacle, that Marius was
promptly accused of electoral corruption. However, he was able to win acquittal on
all charges and proceeded to spend an uneventful year as Praetor in Rome.
By the end of his term, Marius would be appointed to govern
the affluent province of Hispania Ulterior. Not much is known about his time as a propraetor,
but it is mentioned in ancient sources that he was able to clear the area of bandits, enabling local
industry to thrive. It is also safe to assume that he made a small fortune by engaging in the
lucrative mining operations there. The middle-aged Marius who had now returned
to Rome proceeded to expand his connections by marrying into the illustrious but destitute
family of the Julii, taking as his wife Julia Caesaria, aunt of THE Julius Caesar.
At the same time that Marius was establishing himself as a political powerhouse, the Senate was
deeply entangled with the affairs in Numidia. Rumours of corruption and possible bribery were
circulating among the urban masses, trying to explain the Senates’ inaction against Jugurtha.
After the massacre of Roman citizens though the Tribunes of the Plebs
finally demanded Military action. In 111 BC, Lucius Calpurnius Bestia
was selected to lead an expedition into Africa. What followed was seemingly unexpected. Bestia,
trying to avoid a needless war actually came to terms with Jugurtha. The Numidian
King presented himself to Bestia and made lots of promises, accompanying them with hefty bribes.
As a result, the two agreed they would seize hostilities in exchange for a small indemnity.
Despite the outrage that was caused in Rome by the scandalous terms of peace, in hindsight,
it is easy to determine why the Roman Consul was so eager to avoid a conflict in Numidia.
During that period, Romes’ northern frontier was in a deep crisis.
In 114 BC, a Thracian tribe known as the Scordisci began a series of raids into Roman
territory near the province of Macedonia. In response, the Senate dispatched a Consul,
but his army was destroyed by the invading barbarians. What followed was the ransacking
of Greece. The Scordisci spared no one, not even the Oracle of Delphi,
probably the most sacred religious institution of the Greek world, which was plundered.
Eventually, the Romans were able to defeat the Scordisci and drive them
out of the Roman territory, but the unruly Tribe would remain a constant thorn at Rome’s side.
Around the same time in 113 BC, yet another huge horde of northern tribes,
collectively known as the Cimbri, had reached the northern side of the Alps,
putting the Romans into a state of emergency. The consul of that year was ordered by the Senate
to check the barbarian advance, but after an unsuccessful attempt at ambushing them, the
Romans were overwhelmed by the large numbers of Cimbric Warriors who ultimately forced the legions
into a chaotic and disgraceful retreat. Despite the instability of the northern frontier,
Rome’s public opinion could not forgive nor forget Jugurthas’ conduct.
In 110 BC, the Romans sent yet another expedition against the Numidian king.
After a year of campaigning though something unexpected happened.
In a demonstration of his abilities as general, Jugurtha lured the legions into a trap.
Exploiting a weak point in Roman defences, the Numidians were able to storm the fortifications,
forcing their enemies to surrender. Rubbing salt in the Roman wound,
Jugurtha demanded from his defeated foe to pass under the yoke.
A humiliating ritual that equated them to a yoked animal.
The time of playing around with affairs in Numidia was now over.
Rome prepared to display her full might and teach a lesson to the errant king.
In 109 BC, the newly elected consul, Quintus Caecilius Metellus, prepared to embark
on a campaign of retaliation against the unruly Jugurtha.
The Consul intended to use all the talent that was available to him,
so despite the political reservations of the Metelli towards Gaius Marius,
Quintus asked him to join his expedition as a legate, there was no question that he was among
the most capable commanders in Rome. Without hesitation, Marius accepted.
In the spring of 109 BC, the consular army of Quintus Metellus was ready to embark for Africa.
Marius’s Numidian adventure was about to begin.