The term Middle English literature refers to the literature written in the
form of the English language known as Middle English, from the 12th century
until the 1470s. During this time the Chancery Standard, a form of
London-based English became widespread and the printing press regularized the
language. Between the 1470s and the middle of the following century there
was a transition to early Modern English. In literary terms, the
characteristics of the literary works written did not change radically until
the effects of the Renaissance and Reformed Christianity became more
apparent in the reign of King Henry VIII. There are three main categories of
Middle English Literature: Religious, Courtly love, and Arthurian, though much
of Geoffrey Chaucer's work stands outside these. Among the many religious
works are those in the Katherine Group and the writings of Julian of Norwich
and Richard Rolle. After the Norman conquest of England,
Law French became the standard language of courts, parliament, and society. The
Norman dialects of the ruling classes mixed with the Anglo-Saxon of the people
and became Anglo-Norman, and Anglo-Saxon underwent a gradual transition into
Middle English. Around the turn of the thirteenth century, Layamon wrote in
Middle English. Other transitional works were popular entertainment, including a
variety of romances and lyrics. With time, the English language regained
prestige, and in 1362 it replaced French and Latin in Parliament and courts of
law. Early examples of Middle English literature are the Ormulum and Havelock
the Dane. In the fourteenth century major works of English literature began
once again to appear, including the works of Chaucer. The latter portion of
the 14th century also saw not only the consolidation of English as a written
language and a shift to secular writing. William Caxton printed four-fifths of
his works in English, which helped to standardize the language and expand the
vocabulary. Early period
After the Norman conquest of England, the written form of the Anglo-Saxon
language continued in some monasteries but few literary works are known from
this period. Under the influence of the new aristocracy, Law French became the
standard language of courts, parliament, and polite society.
As the invaders integrated, their language and literature mingled with
that of the natives. The Norman dialects of the ruling classes became
Anglo-Norman, and Anglo-Saxon underwent a gradual transition into Middle
English. Political power was no longer in English hands, so the West Saxon
literary language had no more influence than any other dialect. Middle English
literature is written, then, in the many dialects that correspond to the history,
culture, and background of the individual writers.
While Anglo-Norman or Latin was preferred for high culture and
administration, English literature by no means died out, and a number of
important works illustrate the development of the language. Around the
turn of the thirteenth century, Layamon wrote his Brut, based on Wace's twelfth
century Anglo-Norman epic of the same name. Layamon's language is recognisably
Middle English, though his prosody shows a strong Anglo-Saxon influence
remaining. Other transitional works were preserved
as popular entertainment, including a variety of romances and lyrics. With
time, the English language regained prestige, and in 1362 it replaced French
and Latin in Parliament and courts of law. Early examples of Middle English
literature are the Ormulum and Havelock the Dane.
The Mercian dialect thrived between the 8th and 13th centuries and was referred
to by John Trevisa, writing in 1387: "For men of the est with men of the
west, as it were undir the same partie of hevene, acordeth more in sownynge of
speche than men of the north with men of the south, therfore it is that Mercii,
that beeth men of myddel Engelond, as it were parteners of the endes,
understondeth better the side langages, northerne and southerne, than northerne
and southerne understondeth either other…"
Late period It was with the fourteenth century that
major works of English literature began once again to appear; these include the
so-called Pearl Poet's Pearl, Patience, Cleanness, and Sir Gawain and the Green
Knight; Langland's political and religious allegory Piers Plowman; John
Gower's Confessio Amantis; and the works of Geoffrey Chaucer, the most highly
regarded English poet of the Middle Ages, who was seen by his contemporaries
as an English successor to the great tradition of Virgil and Dante.
The latter portion of the 14th century also saw not only the consolidation of
English as a written language, taking over from French or Latin in certain
areas, but a large shift from primarily theological or religious subject matter
to also include that of a more secular nature. Vernacular book production saw a
growth in the amount of books being copied, both secular and religious.
Thus, the latter portion of the 14th century can be seen as one of the most
significant periods in the history of the English language.
The reputation of Chaucer's successors in the 15th century has suffered in
comparison with him, though Lydgate, Thomas Hoccleve, and Skelton are widely
studied. At this time the origins of Scottish poetry began with the writing
of The Kingis Quair by James I of Scotland. The main poets of this
Scottish group were Robert Henryson, William Dunbar, and Gavin Douglas.
Henryson and Douglas introduced a note of almost savage satire, which may have
owed something to the Gaelic bardic poetry, while Douglas's version of
Virgil's Aeneid is one of the early monuments of Renaissance literary
humanism in English. It was a vibrant time for religious
drama as well: many morality plays and miracle plays were produced, and some
scripts survive today. Sidrak and Bokkus is another example of late Middle
English literature. = Caxton and the English language=
The first English printer, William Caxton, printed four-fifths of his works
in English. He translated a large number of works into English; Caxton translated
26 of the titles himself. Caxton is credited with printing as many as 108
books, 87 of which were different titles. However, the English language
was changing rapidly in Caxton's time and the works he was given to print were
in a variety of styles and dialects. Caxton was a technician rather than a
writer and he often faced dilemmas concerning language standardisation in
the books he printed. His successor Wynkyn de Worde faced similar problems.
Caxton is credited with standardising the English language through printing.
This facilitated the expansion of English vocabulary, the development of
inflection and syntax and the ever-widening gap between the spoken and
the written word. However, Richard Pynson, a Frenchman who started printing
in London in 1491 or 1492 and who favoured Chancery Standard English, was
a more accomplished stylist and consequently pushed the English language
even further toward standardisation. See also
Scots makars English mystery plays
References Further reading
Kaiser, Rolf, ed. Medieval English: an Old English and Middle English
anthology; 3rd ed. Berlin: Rolf Kaiser