Ley lines /leɪ laɪnz/ are supposed alignments of numerous places of geographical and historical
interest, such as ancient monuments and megaliths, natural ridge-tops and water-fords. The phrase
was coined in 1921 by the amateur archaeologist Alfred Watkins, in his books Early British
Trackways and The Old Straight Track. He sought to identify ancient trackways in the British
landscape. Watkins later developed theories that these alignments were created for ease
of overland trekking by line-of-sight navigation during neolithic times, and had persisted
in the landscape over millennia. In a book called The View Over Atlantis, the
writer John Michell revived the term "ley lines", associating it with spiritual and
mystical theories about alignments of land forms, drawing on the Chinese concept of feng
shui. He believed that a mystical network of ley lines existed across Britain.
Since the publication of Michell's book, the spiritualised version of the concept has been
adopted by other authors and applied to landscapes in many places around the world. Both versions
of the theory have been criticised on the grounds that a random distribution of a sufficient
number of points on a plane will inevitably create alignments of random points purely
by chance.
Alfred Watkins and The Old Straight Track
The concept of "ley lines" originated with Alfred Watkins in his books Early British
Trackways and The Old Straight Track, though Watkins also drew on earlier ideas about alignments;
in particular he cited the work of the English astronomer Norman Lockyer, who argued that
ancient alignments might be oriented to sunrise and sunset at solstices.
On 30 June 1921, Alfred Watkins visited Blackwardine in Herefordshire, and had been driving along
a road near the village. Attracted by the nearby archaeological investigation of a Roman
camp, he stopped his car to compare the landscape on either side of the road with the marked
features on his much used map. While gazing at the scene around him and consulting the
map, he saw, in the words of his son, "like a chain of fairy lights" a series of straight
alignments of various ancient features, such as standing stones, wayside crosses, causeways,
hill forts, and ancient churches on mounds. He realized immediately that the potential
discovery had to be checked from higher ground when during a revelation he noticed that many
of the footpaths there seemed to connect one hilltop to another in a straight line.
He subsequently coined the term "ley" at least partly because the lines passed through places
whose names contained the syllable ley, stating that philologists defined the word differently,
but had misinterpreted it. He believed this was the ancient name for the trackways, preserved
in the modern names. The ancient surveyors who supposedly made the lines were given the
name "dodmen". Watkins believed that, in ancient times, when Britain was far more densely forested,
the country was criss-crossed by a network of straight-line travel routes, with prominent
features of the landscape being used as navigation points. This observation was made public at
a meeting of the Woolhope Naturalists' Field Club of Hereford in September 1921.
His work referred to G. H. Piper's paper presented to the Woolhope Club in 1882, which
noted that: "A line drawn from the Skirrid-fawr mountain northwards to Arthur's Stone would
pass over the camp and southern most point of Hatterall Hill, Oldcastle, Longtown Castle,
and Urishay and Snodhill castles." It has also been suggested that Watkins' speculation
stemmed from reading an account in September 1870 by William Henry Black given to the British
Archaeological Association in Hereford titled Boundaries and Landmarks, in which he speculated
that "Monuments exist marking grand geometrical lines which cover the whole of Western Europe".
He published his book Early British Trackways the following year, commenting "I knew nothing
on June 30th last of what I now communicate, and had no theories".
Examples of ley lines in Britain Alfred Watkins theorised that St. Ann's Well
in Worcestershire is the start of a ley line that passes along the ridge of the Malvern
Hills through several springs including the Holy Well, Walms Well and St. Pewtress Well.
In The Ley Hunter's Companion Paul Devereux theorised that a 10 mile alignment he called
the "Malvern Ley" passed through St Ann's Well, the Wyche Cutting, a section of the
Shire Ditch, Midsummer Hill, Whiteleaved Oak, Redmarley D'Abitot and Pauntley.
In City of Revelation British author John Michell theorised that Whiteleaved Oak is
the centre of a circular alignment he called the "Circle of Perpetual Choirs" and is equidistant
from Glastonbury, Stonehenge, Goring-on-Thames and Llantwit Major. The theory was investigated
by the British Society of Dowsers and used as background material by Phil Rickman in
his novel The Remains of an Altar. Perhaps relevant to the ley line argument
is the existence of cursus, massive parallel imprints in the ground made by people between
3400 and 3000 BCE. Ranging in length from several hundred metres to well over a kilometre,
their exact function remains unknown though they are commonly believed to have been used
for ceremonial processions. Many of them do encompass Neolithic graves and monuments.
However, while some cursus are relatively straight, others have curves and sharp turns.
This may argue that ancient Britons had little interest in moving in straight lines over
a landscape. Criticism
Watkins' work met with early scepticism from archaeologists, one of whom, O. G. S. Crawford,
refused to accept advertisements for The Old Straight Track in the journal Antiquity. Since
1989, refutations of Watkins' ideas have been generally based on mathematical methods such
as statistics and Shape Analysis. Chance alignments
One criticism of Watkins' ley line theory states that given the high density of historic
and prehistoric sites in Britain and other parts of Europe, finding straight lines that
"connect" sites is trivial, and ascribable to coincidence. A statistical analysis of
lines concluded that "the density of archaeological sites in the British landscape is so great
that a line drawn through virtually anywhere will 'clip' a number of sites."
Shape analysis A study by David George Kendall used the techniques
of shape analysis to examine the triangles formed by standing stones to deduce if these
were often arranged in straight lines. The shape of a triangle can be represented as
a point on the sphere, and the distribution of all shapes can be thought of as a distribution
over the sphere. The sample distribution from the standing stones was compared with the
theoretical distribution to show that the occurrence of straight lines was no more than
average. Archaeologist Richard Atkinson once demonstrated
this by taking the positions of telephone boxes and pointing out the existence of "telephone
box leys". This, he thus argued, showed that the mere existence of such lines in a set
of points does not prove that the lines are deliberate artefacts, especially since it
is known that telephone boxes were not laid out in any such manner or with any such intention.
New Age endorsement In 1969, the British author John Michell,
who had previously written on the subject of UFOs, published The View Over Atlantis,
in which he revived Watkins' ley line theories and linked them with the Chinese concept of
feng shui. The book, published by Sago Press, proved popular and was reprinted in Great
Britain by Garnstone Press in 1972 and Abacus in 1973, and in the United States by Ballantine
Books in 1972. Gary Lachman states that The View Over Atlantis "put Glastonbury on the
countercultural map." Ronald Hutton described it as "almost the founding document of the
modern earth mysteries movement". Michell's mingling Watkins' amateur archaeology
with Chinese spiritual concepts of land-forms led to many new theories about the alignments
of monuments and natural landscape features. Writers made use of Watkins' terminology in
service of concepts related to dowsing and New Age beliefs, including the ideas that
ley lines have spiritual power or resonate a special psychic or mystical energy. Ascribing
such characteristics to ley lines has led to the term being classified as pseudoscience.
New Age occultists claim ley lines are sources of power or energy. According to Robert T.
Carroll, there is no evidence for this belief save the usual subjective certainty based
on uncontrolled observations by untutored devotees. Nevertheless, advocates claim that
the alleged energy may be related to magnetic fields. None of this has been scientifically
verified. In 2004, John Bruno Hare wrote:
Watkins never attributed any supernatural significance to leys; he believed that they
were simply pathways that had been used for trade or ceremonial purposes, very ancient
in origin, possibly dating back to the Neolithic, certainly pre-Roman. His obsession with leys
was a natural outgrowth of his interest in landscape photography and love of the British
countryside. He was an intensely rational person with an active intellect, and I think
he would be a bit disappointed with some of the fringe aspects of ley lines today".
See also List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
References
External links Early British Trackways at sacred-texts.com
Ley Lines at the Skeptic's Dictionary Ley-lines. article by Alex Whitaker
An excerpt from The New Ley Hunter's Guide by Paul Devereux
Moonraking: What does it all mean? Finding Places of Power: Dowsing Earth Energies
Data sources The Megalithic Map
Megalithia, a similar website with grid references for over 1,400 sites
GENUKI Parish Database, including grid references for over 14,000 UK churches and register offices
The Gazetteer of British Place Names with over 50,000 entries
Ley Lines Research Aliens with a taste for pick 'n' mix: Woolworths
stores follow uncanny geometrical patterns The Ley Hunter's Companion Google Earth placemark
file based on the 1979 book by Paul Devereux.