In our previous video on Greco-Bactria, we briefly covered the Indo-Greeks. In this video,
we shall go more in depth upon the history and culture of this enigmatic period of Hellenic
history. When and how did it begin? Who were its most successful rulers? And just how Greek
was the Indo-Greek kingdom? All of these questions will be answered, and more.
As with every story set during the Hellenistic age, this one begins with Alexander. The young
Macedonian King had conquered his way across the near east and central Asia, and by 325
BC had reached the Hindu Kush. Upon his conquest of the region, Alexander created four Satrapies,
and within them founded three prominent cities: Alexandria on the Indus, Alexandria on the
Caucasus, and Alexandria Eschate - Alexandria the Furthest. These outpost cities were populated
with Greek settlers, and formed the basis for Hellenic presence in this region for centuries
to come. Upon Alexander’s death, these northern Indian
Satrapies became the territory of Seleucus I Nicator [Nai’kater], one of Alexander’s
generals, and founder of the Seleucid Empire. However, he did not hold these territories
for long. Further into the subcontinent was the burgeoning Mauryan Empire, led by Chandragupta,
who sought no less than to rule all of India. Chandragupta annexed the Macedonian satrapies
in the Indus without much trouble. Seleucus and Chandragupta fought between 305 and 303
in a war that we know very little about. It seems that Chandragupta had the upper hand,
but to avoid a prolonged war, he struck a deal. Seleucus was gifted 500 Indian war Elephants
to recognize Mauryan claim over the Indus, while Chandragupta married Seleucus’ daughter.
Peace was secured, and Chandragupta came to rule over all of India, including the population
of Greeks who had settled there under Alexander. In 268 BC, Ashoka the Great ascended as the
Mauryan Emperor. In 260 BC, he converted to Buddhism, and sent Buddhist missionaries across
central Asia. During this time, he claimed to have converted the Greeks in his realm,
who he called the Yavanas, to Buddhism. Meanwhile further north, the Greeks of Bactria
had seceded from the Seleucid Dynasty and formed the independent Greco-Bactrian realm
by 250 BC. Twenty years later, Ashoka the Great died, and the Mauryan empire began a
slow decline. In 190 BC, the Greco-Bactrians, led by King Demetrius II of the Euthydemid
dynasty, began a conquest into the Indus, reclaiming the Indian Satrapies created by
Alexander 100 years before. The Greco-Bactrians managed to conquer the
regions of Paropamisade, Arachosia and Western Punjab. However, their advance would be abruptly
cut short. Back in the Bactrian capital, Demetrius II was deposed by an official known as Eucratides,
who styled himself as the new Bactrian King. This causes a schism among the Greeks, creating
a Bactrian state ruled by Eucratides, and an Indo-Greek state ruled by the Euthydemid
dynasty. Thus, by 180 BC, the Indo-Greek Kingdom as we know it had begun.
In 155 BC, Menander I, known as Milinda to the Indians, ascended as King of the Indo-Greeks.
His reign, which lasted around 25 years, was considered the most successful of all the
Indo-Greek kings. Menander was born in a village called Kalasi,
near Alexandria in the Caucasus. He inherited his Kingdom from Antimachus II, and initially
ruled over territory from the Hindu Kush to West Punjab. His capital was Sagala, a prosperous,
wealthy city that blended Greek and Indian designs.
The King was a well-educated man who despite being Greek, was educated in Indian history
and tradition, knowledgeable in the ancient Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya, and Vaisheshika [vai’she’sheeka]
systems of poetry, philosophy and arithmetic, and he was well learned in the art of war.
According to the Greek geographer Strabo, Menander conquered “more tribes than Alexander
the Great”, although this is likely hyperbolic. With that said, the Indo-Greek King definitely
expanded the borders of his realm. He conquered Eastern Punjab and Mathura, and even pushed
into central India, as far east as Pataliputra. However, here he was pushed back by the Brahmin
King Pushyamitra, who ruled what remained of the Mauryan Empire.
By some accounts, this Brahmin King was a cruel persecutor of Buddhists. He had even
offered a reward for the murder of Buddhist monks in the city of Shakala, which was on
the border between his realm and the Indo-Greeks. This was likely for political reasons. Pushyamitra
sought to suppress the Buddhist religion, as his main rival, Menander, was a great patron
of Buddhism. Buddhist art, literature and tradition flourished in the Indo-Greek Kingdom,
and the Greek King himself had converted to the faith.
This conversion is well documented in an ancient Buddhist text known as the Milinda Panha,
meaning “The Questions of Menander”, in which Menander had a long dialogue with a
Kashmiri Buddhist Sage known as Nagasena. Nagasena himself was trained by a great monk
known as Dharmarakshita, who himself was an ethnic Greek convert to Buddhism during the
reign of Ashoka Maurya. During this dialogue between Greek King and
Buddhist Sage, Menander asks Nagasena many questions about life itself, including the
concept of a soul, asceticism, memory, attachment and wealth. Delighted by the sage’s wisdom,
Menander declares his conversion to the Buddhist faith.
The Milinda Panha claims that after this dialogue, Menander abdicated his Kingship to his son,
and retired from the world, eventually reaching Arhat - the Enlightenment - and achieving
Nirvana. However, this is poorly attested. While he lived the rest of his life as a devout
Buddhist, Menander most likely died from sickness while on campaign against a Greek usurper
in his realm, the self-styled Indo-Greek King Zoisos II.
Regardless, King Menander would be remembered as the strongest of the Indo-Greek Kings,
and fostered stability in his realm during his reign. The Indo-Greeks would never quite
reclaim the glory they experienced under Menander, and the Indo-Greek Kingdom would slowly decline
after his death, fracturing into multiple smaller Greek-ruled states that often squabbled
amongst themselves. So, just how Greek was the Indo-Greek Kingdom?
If Menander and his followers were patrons of Buddhism and adopted eastern practices,
how much of Greek culture remained? In other Hellenic Kingdoms such as the Ptolemies
or Seleucids, there existed a strict racial hierarchy. In the Indo-Greek Kingdom, things
seemed to have been different. As it stands, all the historical evidence we have of the
Indo-Greek Kingdom points to a unique, syncretic blend of culture, in which Greeks mingled
with the local Indian population, existing side by side, often times merging their worldviews
into one. The Greeks introduced aspects of their architecture
into the Indian world. In the Milinda Panha, Menander’s capital of Sagala is described
as having a “white walled citadel” and “well laid out streets, squares, cross roads
and market places”, hinting at Hellenic influence in its design. Remains of the iconic
Corinthian style marble columns have been found in India, baring imagery of elephants,
Buddhist monks, and Buddha himself, a testament to the merging of eastern and western cultures.
This cultural syncretism is further evidenced by the coinage of the Indo-Greek Kings. They
were often bilingually inscribed both in the Greek language, and in Pali, the language
spoken by the original Buddha himself. The coins of Menander, however, depict the goddess
Athena, with the description Athena Alkidemos- Athena the Saviour. This shows that despite
their adoption of eastern religion, the Greeks did not give up their own Gods, and in fact
incorporated them into Indian religion. Greco-Buddhist art flourished in the Indo-Greek
and Bactrian realms. Their cult of form directly influenced Buddhist art, and it was around
this time that Buddha was first depicted in human form. It even became common practice
to depict the legendary Greek Hero Heracles as the Buddha’s protector. While these intricate
artworks depicted eastern themes and eastern gods, they bore the distinct, austere, marble
cult of form which makes them iconically Hellenic in design.
In 10 AD, the last Indo-Greek realm would fall. But this would not be the end of the
Greek presence in India. In 30 AD, the former territories of the Indo-Greek realm would
fall under the control of the Kushan Empire. The Kushans borrowed heavily from the Greeks;
in fact, Greek was their official administrative language until 127 AD, and the Bactrian language
they spoke from that point on used the Greek alphabet.
The Greeks remained a visible minority in the Kushan Empire for centuries. The Kushans,
being devout Buddhists themselves, borrowed heavily from the Greco-Buddhist traditions
that had developed over the past two centuries. Under the Kushans, Greek Buddhist monks would
play a large role in the spread of Buddhism into China, and beyond.
Eventually, the Greek presence in India would fade away. However, their centuries long presence
in the Indian subcontinent, and the cultural legacy they left behind leaves a fascinating
story for history enthusiasts around the world to study for years to come. After all, there
are no more interesting parts of history than when two worlds collide.
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