[Music]
The atomic model has remained unchanged for a long time and yet there
are many mysteries that this model has not been able to unlock.
Some nuclear reactions are very well known and have been thoroughly studied.
One would therefore expect that we know all there is to know about such reactions
and that we understand how the products are created.
One problem is predicting how the larger atoms split.
Why does uranium split asymmetrically, if the nucleus is simply a collection
of neutrons and protons jumbled randomly in the center. If we examine the simple case of an
alpha particle emission, this also throws up many problems. One of
these relates to the size of the nucleus itself. We know that protons and neutrons have size.
This means that the nucleus must have a size which relates to these sizes.
If we add into this the fact that in the Standard Model,
the position of the protons and neutrons are thought to be random,
then it would imply that to emit an alpha particle, the internal protons and neutrons must
rearrange themselves to form this prior to being ejected. This becomes more
complex as we examine larger and larger atoms that always seem to produce the same
products. The nucleus would need to undergo significant rearrangement in order to
accomplish this. And this requires space within the
nucleus to allow the particles to move to their correct location. If we examine
the width of the nucleus and compare this to the width of the individual particles that make up
the nucleus, we find that there is simply no room to allow this to happen.
It would appear as if the atoms are in a very dense packing state
at all times, which would not allow for any rearrangement of the particles.
And this implies that the nucleus must have structure. And this is something that Edo Kaal
has spent the last 12 years working on and now has a team of people working on it.
Unhappy with the many problems with the current model, he set himself the
challenge of redefining the structure of the atom. The basic premise of the Structured Atom
Model or SAM for short, is beautifully simple. The neutron is not
considered a fundamental particle. Instead it is redefined as a proton- electron pair.
The nucleus therefore only contains protons and what are called inner electrons.
These inner electrons are used to bind the protons together, acting as a kind of glue.
In order to bind two protons together, we require one
inner electron. One proton and inner electron are therefore equivalent to what was
called the neutron. Overall, the charge of the nucleus does
not change. But the important point is that the force which holds the protons together
inside the nucleus, is the electrostatic force, not the strong nuclear force. This also
explains why a neutron will decay to an electron and a proton
and an antineutrino within 15 minutes of leaving the nucleus, and why the charge of the neutron is
zero and its mass is slightly more than that of a proton. The force holding the proton in the
nucleus will attract inwards towards the center of the structure,
causing the formation of specific geometric shapes which form platonic solids that have
triangular faces, like the tetrahedron and the icosahedron. These form the building blocks from
which the larger nuclear structures are built. The SAM team have produced a new
periodic table that shows a plausible structural configuration for each element.
The structural pattern, combined with the principle of densest packing,
drive the various observable nuclear physics phenomena,
including which nuclear reactions are possible, the tendency to fission and probable
isotopic variations that may exist. It is well known that transmutation can
occur under laboratory conditions. However current models are not capable
of providing an explanation for how this might occur. The SAM model contains the components for a
theoretical basis for the transmutation of metals. This in turn will clear the way for
finally resolving the mystery of cold fusion or low energy nuclear reactions.
We also think transmutations play a key role in biology and again here SAM can help to
understand these vital processes in more detail. One of the main insights obtained from
the SAM model is that the inner nuclear structure dictates the chemical properties of the
element. Being able to visualize the nucleus can potentially provide structural clues
about the outer electron configuration. SAM has also been able to identify
several cases of potentially missing elements, solely from the vacancies in the new
periodic table. They identified structural shapes that can be used to make predictions about
the chemical properties of these missing elements. In cosmology
it is thought that the elements are created through a variety of processes
in stars. The lighter elements from carbon to sulfur are created by fusion reactions,
while elements in the iron group originate mostly in supernova explosions,
and elements beyond iron are made in high-mass stars by slow neutron capture, and by rapid
neutron capture in violent interactions of rare supernova variants or compact stellar
collisions. The narrative of the origin of the
elements is being challenged by the SAM model. The realization that element
transmutation does occur in relatively benign environments,
suggests that this depiction of nuclear synthesis may be flawed. An
alternative possibility put forward by the SAM team is that the heavy elements beyond iron
are created in situ on the planets. This would occur in intense electrical discharges. Related
to this, electrical discharges are the prime suspect for the occurrence
of transmutation in Earth geology. One consequence of this, is that the
dating of geological layers becomes questionable since the
transmutation alters the decay rate of elements. SAM provides insights that no other
model is capable of doing. They explain how each element is
structured; why the isotopes of an element differ from each other;
where the cycle of 8 comes from; and why it breaks down. It not only explains why elements become
unstable after lead, but also why alpha decay happens in some elements and yet not others,
and why uranium-235 splits asymmetrically, and the origin of the neutron drip line. SAM
is a radically different way of looking at the atom that brings with it a simple approach
that is easily understood. Simple rules create the structure of the elements and these
in turn determine, not only their properties, but also determine
how they will interact or break down to form other elements
on a predictable basis. The key underlying assumption is simply that the particles are held in
the nucleus by one force: the electrostatic force. It removes the need for the strong force
and also questions the existence of the many exotic particles that
physicists have dreamt up. This is just a brief overview of the SAM model.
If you are interested in a deeper understanding of SAM,
and how it can explain things like, for example why certain elements are unstable;
how nuclear reactions would work; how it could explain transmutations;
then please see the SAM playlist on my channel,
or head over to the SAM website where you can also pre-order their new book.
[Music]