With the advancement in military technology, the wars became more and more global.
Often a skirmish in one seemingly unimportant area would have long term strategic consequences.
30 years after the Russo-Japanese War, the USSR and Japan were struggling over the borders
in Mongolia and that led to the Battles of Khalkhin Gol in 1937.
This minor conflict proved to be among the most crucial fought in the pre-war period.
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In the 19th century, the Russian Empire was expanding its influence in the Far East, but
the victory in the Russo-Japanese War, allowed Imperial Japan to check that and eventually
it gained control over Korea, Manchuria and South Sakhalin.
The Soviet Union tried to recover its control over the region, successfully aiding Revolutions
in Mongolia and China.
The 1930s saw Japan’s increasing interest in Mongolia and the region more generally
as they invaded Manchuria, establishing the puppet state of Manchukuo in 1932 and advancing
into Inner Mongolia one year later.
The Japanese had suddenly and violently acquired a three-thousand-mile border with the USSR
and Mongolia, and this border was very ambiguous and subject to dispute.
Soon the Japanese Army stepped up its presence in the region, creating a quasi-independent
military force and government known as the Kwantung Army.
At the same time, the Soviet Union began bolstering its defenses and signed a mutual assistance
pact with their Mongolian satellite state in 1936.
In 1937 Stalin purged the army, wiping off eighty percent of the staff in the Far East
and Japan saw this debilitation of their rival and decided to exercise some pressure on the
Manchurian frontier.
In the Amur River, the Japanese managed to occupy Kanchatzu Island as a result of one
of the many border skirmishes.
On July 7 the Marco Polo Bridge Incident ignited a full-scale Sino-Japanese War that would
weaken Japan in their possible war against the USSR.
Soviet aid to China and the Japanese divisions being tied down in Manchuria helped prevent
a swift Japanese victory, which emboldened the Soviets to take a tougher stance m.
In 1938, this culminated in the Battle of Lake Khasan, called Changkufeng Incident in
Japan, where Japanese forces occupied the disputed area but withdrew after heavy fighting.
Although they managed to repel their foes thanks to the actions of Commander Grigori
Shtern, the Soviets suffered more losses than the Japanese because of the incompetence of
Marshal Vasily Blyukher.
However, this battle shows the shift in the balance of power in the region, as the Soviet
Union had now more forces stationed in the Manchurian frontier than the Japanese.
In mid-1938, the Japanese 23rd Division was created within the Kwantung Armyassigned to
Hailar, responsible for frontier security in Northwestern Manchukuo.
Subordinated to the infantry division was the 8th Border Garrison Unit, composed of
some 7000 Manchukuoan troops.
The 23rd Division was composed of three inexperienced and ill-equipped infantry regiments and was
commanded by the inexperienced General Komatsubara Michitaro.
The Soviet High Command countered by relocating the 57th Special Rifle Corps, consisting of
the 36th Motorized Rifle Division, 11th Tank Brigade and 7th, 8th and 9th Armored Car brigades
to Mongolia to defend its border with Manchuria.
The Corps was led by Commander Nikolai Feklenko and the Mongolian forces were commanded by
Marshal Khorloogiin Choibalsan.
Shtern replaced Blyukher and was given command of the Far Eastern front.
Since 1935 border conflicts happened around the Mongolian-Manchurian frontiers across
the Halha River, known as the Khalkhin Gol to the Mongolians.
The Soviets claimed that the border shouldn’t be across the river, but some ten to twenty
miles east and through the tiny hamlet of Nomonhan.
To establish that on May 11, 1939, a twenty-man Mongolian border patrol crossed the Halha
River moving eastward to Nomonhan.
The patrol was discovered by the Japanese and a Manchukuoan cavalry force of about forty
men was sent to drive back the Mongolians across the river.
Some casualties were sustained by both sides, but the Manchukuoans had drawn first blood.
The next day, a bigger border force, commanded by Major Chogdan, pushed the Manchukuoan cavalry
out of the disputed area.
This spurred both sides to appeal to their protectors.
General Komatsubara dispatched Colonel Azuma Yaozo on 14 May to lead the reconnaissance
into the disputed territory and expel the intruders.
This force consisted of an armored car reconnaissance company, two infantry companies and some cavalry.
Azuma discovered that the Mongolians had retreated, leaving small elements on the banks of the
River.
An airstrike was ordered on these forces by Komatsubara.
The Soviets were furious at this strike and decided to support the Mongolians.
Feklenko was away from headquarters at the time, so he hurried back to the Mongol capital
of Ulaanbaatar to dispatch a mixed force of infantry and motorized artillery, commanded
by Major Bykov, to support the Mongolian 6th Cavalry Division in securing the border.
Bykov had around 1,000 infantry and 1,250 Mongolian cavalry.
Several skirmishes happened in the disputed area and gradually grew in intensity, while
the Soviets started building a bridge near the junction between the Halha and Holsten
rivers.
On May 20, Japanese reconnaissance discovered Bykov’s forces and Komatsubara decided to
send a strike force under Colonel Takemitsu, composed of the 64th Infantry Regiment and
Azuma’s reconnaissance force.
Having around 2,000 men, Yamagata was ordered to destroy all enemy forces east of the Halha
River.
The attack was set to be launched on May 28 with Yamagata planning to trap the enemy forces
in the eastern bank of the river as Azuma’s force went south directly towards the bridge,
cutting off the enemy’s escape route.
Bykov had placed his infantry regiments in the flanks and the Mongolian cavalry in the
center, with one infantry regiment and his artillery in reserve near the bridge, while
Yamagata concentrated his forces at the town of Kanchuerhmiao, north of Nomonhan.
In the morning, the battle began with Yamagata’s infantry attacking Bykov’s force near Nomonhan.
The lightly armed Mongolian cavalry was routed and driven back, forcing the Soviet infantry
to retreat as well towards the river.
Moving closer to the river, the Soviet artillery and armored cars came into action slowing
the Japanese offensive.
Bykov was able to regroup his forces near the bridge and started counterattacks, forcing
Yamagata’s men to dig in.
Meanwhile, Azuma went south and soon found himself encircled by the Soviet reserves in
the bridge and the forces under Bykov.
Refusing to and under heavy artillery fire, Azuma’s forces were annihilated on May 29
and Azuma himself died, while Yamagata was unable to regroup his forces and come to his
rescue.
Later that day, Yamagata retreated back to Kanchuerhmiao.
The first battle of Khalkhin Gol ended with almost 500 Japanese casualties and the Soviets
occupying the disputed territory with less than 100 casualties.
In the aftermath, the Kwantung Army misinformed the Japanese General Staff, assuring that
everything was in order, while the Soviet 57th Corps headquartered in Tamsag Bulak,
an airbase in Mongolia.
On 5th June, Soviet High Command decided to replace Feklenko with a young-but-capable
commander named Georgy Zhukov.
Reinforcements were allocated to strengthen Zhukov’s new command and an aviation unit
under Commander Yakov Smushkevich was assigned to Tamsag Bulak.
The Soviets now had around 12,500 men, 109 artillery, 186 tanks, 266 armored cars and
more than 100 aircraft in the region, with more tanks arriving daily, bolstering the
number to 500.
On June 19, two Soviet airstrikes near Kanchuerhmiao caused the Kwantung Army’s Major Masanobu
Tsuji to draw up plans for a large-scale attack across the Halha River and to reinforce the
23rd Division with additional forces, including the 2nd Air Group under the command of General
Gigi Tetsuji and the excellent 26th Infantry Regiment with an armored tank detachment under
General Yasuoka Masaomi.
The Japanese now had 15,000 men, 120 artillery, 70 tanks, and 180 aircraft.
Tsuji’s plan was to approach the Halha River and seize a group of hills called the Fui
Heights, some eleven miles of the Soviet bridge.
They would secretly build their bridge nearby and, after crossing the river, they would
strike southwards to the Soviet bridge while Yasuoka’s detachment would push south from
the Fui Heights in a pincer movement, leaving the Soviet forces trapped near their own bridge.
To secure Japanese air superiority, needed for the success of the plan, on May 28 Tsuji
sent the 2nd Air Group in an airstrike against Tamsag Bulak.
The raid was highly successful and around 100 Soviet planes destroyed, but the strike
was against General Staff orders and this soured relations between them and the Kwantung
Army.
In the Far East, General Shtern had organized trucks with supplies and reinforcements eastwards
to Zhukov’s position.
The Japanese misinterpreted this as a Soviet retreat, and decided to rush the offensive’s
preparations to the start of July.
Sensing a forthcoming attack, Zhukov moved his 11th Tank Brigade, 7th Mechanized Brigade
and 24th Mechanized Infantry Regiment to the west of the Halha River.
The offensive started on July 1 at 4:00 a.m. with the Japanese forces marching undetected
20 miles towards the Fui Heights.
The following night, a battalion of the 71st Infantry Regiment silently crossed the Halha
River and built a pontoon bridge between the two banks of the river.
When the bridge was completed, the main body of Komatsubara’s 23rd Division, along with
the 26th Regiment, began a slow and arduous crossing.
They had to proceed without tank support but could carry their old artillery and antitank
guns.
The Japanese achieved a complete tactical surprise and found the Soviet forces in a
vulnerable position.
The battle began on July 3 when General Yasuoka’s tanks attacked the 149th Mechanized Infantry
Regiment in the eastern bank of the river, while Komatsubara occupied the Bain Tsagan
hill on the western bank and continued southward.
Unaware of Komatsubara’s position, Zhukov ordered his 11th Tank Brigade, 7th Mechanized
Brigade, 24th Mechanized Infantry Regiment and the Mongolian 6th Cavalry Division to
advance northeastward to Bain Tsagan.
Early in the morning, both sides were surprised by the encounter.
The Soviet tanks took the initiative and started the attack, but the Japanese enjoyed air support
and their anti-tank guns were highly effective.
Now aware of the enemy’s plan, Zhukov sent the 7th Brigade, 24th Regiment and an armored
battalion of the Mongolian 8th in an attempt to hold the Japanese at Bain Tsagan.
The assault was uncoordinated and lacked infantry support, allowing the Japanese infantry to
destroy at least 120 tanks.
But the repeated tank attacks forced the Japanese to dig defensive in by afternoon.
Zhukov had managed to stop their advance.
In the eastern bank, Yasuoka enjoyed initial success beating the 149th, getting a few miles
away from the bridge, but would later face increasingly determined Soviet resistance.
Yasuoka’s vanguard was led by two tank regiments of Type 89 medium tank, designed primarily
for an infantry support role.
Zhukov’s antitank defenses were as effective as the Japanese ones, even using strands of
piano wire to immobilize their tanks.
Meanwhile, Yasuoka’s infantry was forced to dig in for protection against artillery
fire and tank counterattacks.
Even worse, the appearance of Soviet aircraft led by Smushkevich destroyed Japanese air
superiority.
By late afternoon, Yasuoka’s advance was stopped and his tanks had to retreat.
Having his plan thwarted, Komatsubara finally decided to retreat at nightfall.
The 26th was left in Bain Tsagan to cover the retreat, suffering heavy losses.
By July 5, after destroying their own bridge, Komatsubara’s forces regrouped in the Fui
Heights.
4 days later, Yasuoka did the same, ending the Japanese offensive.
Even with numerical superiority and tactical surprise, the Japanese had failed once again.
They had lost 10% of their infantry and 60% of their tanks, and while Soviet losses were
heavier, they were easier to replace.
Several night attacks ensued in the next two weeks with the Japanese facing supply problems.
The Japanese gradually advanced close to the bridge, but as they suffered heavy casualties
Komatsubara decided to halt the attack.
When artillery reinforcements arrived, led by General Uchiyama Eitaro, a new attack was
launched on July 23, but it ultimately proved fruitless against the overwhelming Soviet
artillery, stopping two days later and bringing the total Japanese casualties to 5000 since
May.
Meanwhile, Zhukov was given autonomy from Shtern’s command as the leader of the new
First Army Group, receiving reinforcements and supplies including two artillery regiments.
Shtern’s line of supply was efficient and this gave the Soviets the upper hand in preparation.
With war looming over Europe, Stalin wanted the Nomonhan Incident dealt with by August,
while the Japanese sent General Ogisu Rippei to take over command from the Kwantung Army
and seek a peaceful solution.
In August, Zhukov increased his forces with the 57th and 82nd Infantry Divisions, 6th
Tank Brigade, 212th Airborne Brigade and two Mongolian cavalry divisions, preparing himself
for a Soviet offensive.
Ogisu supervised the operation from his headquarters and placed Komatsubara on the frontlines,
being reinforced only with the 28th Regiment from the 7th Division and adopting a defensive
posture.
He placed Manchukuoan cavalry on his flanks with his infantry in the center, fortifying
his overstretched line.
Zhukov discovered this disposition thanks to the 149th Mechanized Infantry Regiment’s
reconnaissance and drew up a plan of attack to exploit the enemy’s weaknesses, dividing
his army into three strike forces.
The central force, under his command, was to launch a frontal assault and tie down the
main Japanese strength.
At the same time the heavily motorized northern and southern strike forces, commanded by Colonels
Alekseenko and Potapov, were to turn in the Japanese flanks and force the enemy into being
encircled by the Soviets.
By August 20, Soviet forces had secretly moved east of the Halha River.
A mobile strategic reserve built around the 212th Airborne Regiment, the 9th Mechanized
Brigade, and a battalion of the 6th Tank Brigade was held west of the Halha River.
On 5:45 a.m.
Soviet bombers and massed artillery began pounding the enemy’s positions.
At 9:00 a.m. the offensive started with a dense morning fog, which gave them the element
of surprise.
This left the Japanese in disarray until midday when resistance stiffened.
Potapov’s southern force achieved the most striking success, with Mongolian cavalry routing
the Manchukuoans and the Soviets managing to hold Komatsubara’s southern flank.
Alekseenko saw initial success routing the enemy cavalry north of the Fui Heights, but
the heights were a natural defensive point and the Soviets were halted there by Colonel
Ioki Eiichiro.
Zhukov’s central force saw furious resistance but prevented Komatsubara to reinforce his
flanks.
In the air, the Soviets provided air support for their infantry and managed to best the
2nd Air Group.
On August 21 and 22 Potapov pierced the Japanese main defensive line at several points and
even managed to reach Nomonhan one day later.
A Japanese force composed by the 28th Regiment, led by General Morita Norimasa, and the depleted
26th, 71st and 72nd Regiments, under General Kobayashi Koichi, was tasked by Ogisu with
stopping Potapov in the south.
But only the 28th and 72nd reached the battlefield on August 24 for the assault in the morning.
A dense fog limited visibility, and so the Japanese tried to use this as an element of
surprise, but they found themselves abruptly confronting a larger Soviet force.
Kobayashi’s infantry regiments were lacerated that day, with high casualties and the general
being gravely wounded.
Morita, on the other hand, saw himself battered by Soviet bombardment and had to retreat.
After three days, Zhukov relieved Alekseenko because of his lack of success and reinforced
the northern forces with the 212th mobile reserves, renewing their assault with heavy
bombardments on the heights.
Overmatched, Ioki suffered almost 600 casualties and finally decided to retreat in the night
to save his men.
With the fall of the Fui Heights, the Soviets began to envelop the Japanese towards Nomonhan.
A day after, the northern 11th Tank Brigade linked up with the southern 8th Armored Brigade
at Nomonhan.
The Japanese center was now trapped by August 25 and Komatsubara’s line was cut into three
encircled pockets.
Morita’s brigade tried to renew their assault to save Komatsubara, but he failed and was
struck down by gunfire on August 26.
One by one, the encircled artillery was pinned and Komatsubara’s infantry was overrun.
On August 27, Ogisu realized he lacked the strength to defeat the Soviets at Nomonhan
and decided to retreat with his remaining forces.
The situation was hopeless for Komatsubara.
August 28 saw the last remnants of Japanese resistance eliminated.
Many Japanese officers chose to commit suicide instead of surrendering.
Komatsubara was about to do the same when Ogisu ordered him to attempt to lead his men
to safety.
On August 30, Komatsubara managed to escape encirclement and retreated with 400 survivors.
On August 31, the battle had ended and the disputed territory was clear of Japanese occupation.
Komatsubara had lost almost 20,000 men, 80% of his forces, rendering it the worst military
defeat in modern Japanese history up to that time.
The Soviets lost around 25,000 men, more than the Japanese, but demonstrated to their foes
that they were a force to be reckoned with.
This shifted Japanese expansion from a northward to a southward course, leading to the outbreak
of the Pacific War.
In Russia, Zhukov and Shtern, among others, would be commemorated for their performance,
while the staff of the Kwantung Army would be relieved from their command because of
their insubordination.
Several Japanese officers, including Ioki, were unfairly forced to commit suicide, and
Komatsubara was recalled to Tokyo to forcefully become retired.
Under the General Staff’s command, the Kwantung Army adopted a defensive stance on the border
and peace talks ensued.
The Molotov-Togo Agreement of September 15 stipulated the ceasing of all hostilities.
Two years later, the Japanese would recognize the Soviet claimed border east of the Halha
River.
A non-aggression pact was signed on April 13, 1941, heavily influenced by the outcome
of the Battle of Khalkhin Gol.
This pact was decisive during World War Two, as the Japanese decided to honor the agreement
and not attack the Soviet Union during the German invasion and Operation Barbarossa,
which would have been catastrophic to the Soviets as they couldn’t withstand a two-front
fight.
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