The vicious assassination of Gaius Julius Caesar, the consul of the Roman Republic,
occurred on March 15, 44 BC - the now-infamous Ides of March. Although political assassinations
were commonplace in Caesar's day, Julius Caesar’s remains controversial, and here's why.
To understand the assassination of Julius Caesar, we must look at his rise to power
and what his position comprised when he was murdered.
Julius Caesar was born into a ruling class of families called the patrician class. He
was educated, intelligent, and cultivated. He also possessed a sharp sense of humor,
charm, and was an excellent speaker. The combination of these traits made him a skilled politician.
But, because of his military prowess, the former general was also a hero of the lower
and middle classes. Caesar had covered himself in glory with a long campaign against the
Gauls, who were a Celtic tribe who lived in modern-day France. In Ancient Rome, such campaigns
not only brought glory to Rome but led to greater loyalty of a general's legions. And
with greater loyalty, Caesar built up greater political power.
National Geographic states that once Caesar was in power,
"He enacted several beneficial measures for Rome. He increased the size of the Senate
for broader participation and opened citizenship to more foreigners."
But the years before Caesar took power, he worked his way through the many checks and
balances that kept Rome a republic. And, although we think of Caesar today as an Emperor, he
wasn't. So, he formed an uneasy alliance with fellow politicians Pompey the Great and Marcus
Licinius Crassus.
This alliance was to ensure domination of the Senate. They vowed to back each other's
policies and vote each other up to the position of consul. This subversive alliance, which
worked to forward the allies' interests, rather than any collective ideal, soon fell apart.
Crassus was killed in battle in 53 BC, after which Pompey and Caesar turned on each other.
After political skirmishes in the Senate, Caesar crossed the Rubicon river with some
40,000 of his troops in 49 BC to fight his old ally Pompey the Great. This began what
would become known as Caesar's Civil War.
Caesar emerged victorious, and in 44 BC claimed the title Dictator Perpetuo, the dictator
in perpetuity of Rome.
The title of dictator was typically held for around six months. This was as a way of giving
the consul a temporary boost in executive power to solve critical problems, such as
uprisings against the Republic. Julius Caesar was keen to visibly demonstrate his new all-encompassing
power. The World History Encyclopedia states that,
"In all processions, an ivory statue of Caesar was to be carried alongside the statues of
the Roman gods – and all this was done without objection from Caesar. This arrogance became
increasingly more evident as time passed."
Such displays ran entirely against the ideals of the Roman Republic, and bred dangerous
resentment among other prominent Romans. They grew concerned that Caesar was positioning
himself to be crowned king and bury the Republic once and for all. One figure who would become
central to the subsequent assassination of Caesar was Marcus Junius Brutus.
Like many Romans, Brutus was descended from military stock who had defended the Roman
Republic for many generations. Brutus' ancestor, Lucius, was a famous rebel who had driven
the Etruscan Kings from Rome centuries earlier. In this way, Brutus had it in his blood to
protect the Republic from tyrants.
In the millennia since the assassination of Julius Caesar, it's the name of Brutus which
has become associated with the betrayal of Caesar.
Brutus' betrayal stands out among all others because of the long and complex history between
the two men. During Caesar's Civil War, Brutus unexpectedly sided with Caesar's enemy, Pompey
the Great. Brutus was captured by Caesar's victorious forces at the Battle of Pharsalus
but according to the Roman historian Plutarch Caesar told his officers to spare Brutus,
adding,
"Caesar did this out of regard for Servilia, the mother of Brutus."
Brutus' mother Servilia was Caesar's mistress for around 20 years, and some sources, including
Plutarch, suggest that there is a possibility that Caesar was, in fact, Brutus' father.
This might explain Caesar's preferential treatment of his one-time enemy. It also makes Brutus'
betrayal much crueler.
Brutus was just one of many who were opposed to Caesar's ongoing accrual of power. Caesar
had the usual old enemies as well as supporters of Pompey who sought both high office and
profit. Then, there were those who seemed to be Caesar's friends but, in reality, were
not. These were people who received gifts or accolades for their loyalty to Caesar but
disliked many of his policies. The World History Encyclopedia adds,
"There were the idealists – those who respected the Republic and its ancient traditions. Individually,
their reasons varied, but together, they believed the salvation of The Republic depended on
the death of Caesar."
Brutus and other former allies of Caesar began to meet in secret, to plot the dictator's
downfall. Among them was Brutus' cousin, Decimus, who had been a long-time Caesar loyalist.
Another, Gaius Cassius Longinus, had previously fought with Pompey against Caesar. However,
Caesar was keen to exploit the talented soldier's military prowess and gave him a full pardon.
These three men agreed that Caesar must be killed and the conspiracy grew, with the number
of would-be assassins reaching a total of 60. They adopted the name The Liberatores,
meaning the Liberators.
All 60 of the Liberatores were senators. They each had their own particular relationship
with Caesar and objections to his continued accrual of power. However, to undertake a
conspiracy of assassination involving 60 people was extremely risky, especially in a period
of political volatility and shifting loyalties.
So, the recruitment of experienced senators was necessary to lend legitimacy to the plan,
but it also meant that The Liberatores became a multi-headed hydra with conflicting ideas.
And so, the debate over exactly how Caesar was to be killed went on for many sessions,
all the while the conspiracy risked being exposed.
The Liberatores also found themselves under pressure for a number of other reasons. It
was agreed upon that the murder must be committed in a public place; otherwise, it would run
the risk of appearing self-serving and therefore illegitimate. The World History Encyclopedia
notes,
"The conspirators realized the attack had to be soon and swift as Caesar was making
plans to lead his army on a three-year campaign against the Parthians, leaving on March 18."
After much debate, the place and date were chosen: the Senate meeting on March 15, at
the Theater of Pompey.
Despite agreement about the need to assassinate Julius Caesar and the formation of a plan
by which to execute it, critical disagreements haunted the Liberatores.
What troubled the conspirators was how the political dice would fall in the power vacuum
that would follow Caesar's death. Cassius was especially wary of Caesar's ally Mark
Antony, a loyalist who was serving as co-consul alongside Caesar and who might take up the
mantle of dictator. As Plutarch notes,
"Cassius had been in favor of slaying Antony as well as Caesar, and of destroying Caesar's
will, but Brutus had opposed him, insisting that citizens ought not to seek the blood
of any but the 'tyrant' — for to call Caesar 'tyrant' placed his deed in a better light."
Brutus was instrumental in ensuring that the assassination of Caesar remained a single
action performed out of necessity. To kill Antony and others would in effect become a
revolutionary purge, and would likely see the populace turn against them.
With his grasp on power continuing to tighten, Julius Caesar felt increasingly secure in
his position. But as the conspiracy against him rumbled secretly on, it seemed that murder
was in the air. Whether through insider knowledge or instinctive foresight, several of Caesar's
inner circle began to warn him of the deadly threat.
The most famous of these warnings came from Spurinna, Caesar's oracle, who used the entrails
of sacrificial animals to tell the future. According to Getty, the Etruscan fortune teller
is alleged to have cautioned Caesar about danger on, quote, "the Ides of March". The
words he is said to have uttered have become immortal.
"Beware the Ides of March"
The night before the Senate meeting on the Ides, Caesar was to receive yet another warning,
this time from his wife, Calpurnia. After she woke from a nightmare, she begged Caesar
to remain at home. Plutarch gives two accounts of the exact nature of the dream. He says
either she dreamt that Caesar was murdered, and died in her arms, or that she dreamt the
Senate voted to tear a, quote, "gable ornament" down from his house.
Julius Caesar was shaken by his wife's warnings and resolved to avoid the Senate meeting.
With just days until Caesar was due to leave Rome, potentially for many years, the conspirators
were forced into action. Plutarch describes how it came down to Decimus to convince the
dictator to attend, and how if Caesar didn't attend the Senate that day then the conspiracy
would be revealed. The writings of Plutarch explain,
"[Decimus] ridiculed the seers and chided Caesar for laying himself open to malicious
charges on the part of the senators, who would think themselves mocked."
Decimus also lied to Caesar telling him that the Senate would be voting on allowing him
to use the title of "king," something that Decimus knew Caesar's ego could not resist.
Just a few days prior, Caesar had allowed his bodyguards to step down as a show of Republicanism.
As such, when the unguarded Caesar arrived at the meeting, and, in his arrogance, failed
to rise for the Senate, the attack began.
Among the 200 gathered Senators, the 60 conspirators withdrew short knives from their togas, and,
surrounding the dictator, stabbed him a total of 26 times.
According to the World History Encyclopedia, at the sight of Brutus, Caesar called out.
"Et to Brute!"
The assassination of Julius Caesar caused a wave of horror among the scores of Senators
who were innocent of the conspiracy. Brutus reportedly attempted an explanation but according
to Plutarch,
"[The Senators] burst out of doors [of the theater] and fled, thus filling the people
with confusion and helpless fear."
The conspirators, unprepared for the reaction, attempted to explain themselves to the people
of Rome. According to the World History Encyclopedia, as Brutus attempted to address the people
from the Temple of Jupiter, Caesar's corpse was carried to his home by slaves. Many citizens
cried as they saw the body carried past.
At Caesar's lavish funeral on March 20th, the tide turned against the conspirators.
Mark Anthony, a loyal supporter of Caesar, gave a speech that praised the man whose reforms
had so improved the conditions of Roman life. His speech drove the mourners into a furious
frenzy and the conspirators were driven from the city, sparking a great crisis that the
Liberatores had not foreseen.
The Liberatores had hoped that by removing the "tyrant" who had overstepped his bounds,
the political machine of the Republic would somehow be able to continue into the future
unimpeded. But, as history shows, their assumptions were fatally wrong.
Instead of protecting the Roman Republic, the actions of the Liberatores saw Rome descend
into yet another civil war. And, many involved in the conspiracy were beaten to death by
mobs of enraged Romans or else saw their property destroyed.
Loyalty towards the dead Caesar arose among the people following the reading of his will,
in which he gave a proportion of his enormous fortune to them. But Caesar's will held some
other surprises too. It was believed that Mark Antony, as Caesar's longtime ally and
friend, stood to inherit a great deal of Caesar's wealth.
However, when the will was opened, it turned out that Caesar had named his comparatively
unknown great-nephew, Octavian, as his main inheritor. The young man had been due to accompany
Caesar on his upcoming campaign. But now he would join forces with Mark Antony to fight
for the control of Rome against the legions controlled by Caesar's killers.
The Battle of Philippi occurred in October, 42 BC and was the culmination of the war that
was sparked by Caesar's assassination.
Brutus led troops against Octavian's forces and defeated Caesar's heir, capturing his
camp. However, Cassius, battling the ferocious troops of Mark Antony in a head-on assault,
fared badly. Unaware of Brutus' victory, Cassius killed himself.
According to Plutarch,
"After his defeat at Philippi [Cassius] slew himself with that very dagger which he had
used against Caesar."
Brutus decided to continue his attack but, after grueling combat against the armies of
Mark Antony, his forces soon scattered. Brutus' own death was imminent. Plutarch writes,
"He did not fall in battle, however, but after the rout retired to a crest of ground, [he]
put his naked sword to his breast, and so died,"
Like Brutus, each and every conspirator involved in the assassination of Julius Caesar met
a grisly end in the years that followed. Mark Antony and Octavian turned on each other after
gaining vengeance for the dictator's death, with Octavian ultimately emerging victorious.
He dismantled the Republic and became Augustus, the first emperor of the Roman Empire in 27
BC.
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