The meteoric rise of Genghis Khan’s Mongol Empire of the thirteenth-century was perhaps
one of the most remarkable of Central Asia’s steppe nations ever to exist, and changed
the world forever.
As we at Kings & Generals have covered before in a previous series, over a period lasting
about half a century, the tribes north of China embarked on a blistering series of conquests
which concluded with a vast majority of Eurasia subject to the Khan’s iron will by the Mongol
horse and arrow.
However, grand military campaigns are not the only aspect of history worth covering,
a view that we hope to prove in this video.
Welcome to our video on the life of average people within the Mongol Empire, beginning
with life on the great Eurasian steppe.
Don’t forget to check out our podcast on the history of the Mongols - the link is in
the description.
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While the vast wealth of the Empire generated by the conquests of Genghis Khan and his successors
eventually led to many Mongol tribes becoming one with their sedentary conquered populations,
this was not always the case.
After all, it was the harsh life and conditions on the steppe which allowed its militaries
to field such stereotypically fearsome armies of horse archers which swept away all in front
of them.
So, what was daily life like in the steppe regions of the Mongol Empire, what were the
nomadic customs and how did the average man or woman make their way in the world?
Though ‘Mongol’ is often the collective term for nomadic tribes on the Eastern Steppe
among the common person, this is purely because of the dominance of Genghis and his imperial
successors.
They were also known as Tatars before the Great Khan due to the status of the Tatar
tribe as the most powerful and dominant group within that particular geopolitical world.
This was particularly common in contemporary Europe, where the word ‘Tatar’ corresponded
with the Christian concept of Tartarus - or ‘hell’.
The major tribal confederations are often divided by historians into groups such as
Mongols, the aforementioned Tatars, Naimans, Merkits, Keraites and others.
However, these groups weren’t by any means distinct in terms of ethnicity or language.
For example, Mongols could be found in Naiman tribes and vice versa, while a form of Turkic
language would frequently be found as the primary language in any number of non-Turkic
polyglot groupings, simply because it was a commonly spoken tongue.
In the Secret History of the Mongols, there is a reference to the Eurasian steppe tribes
as ‘the peoples of the Nine Tongues’, a phrase perfectly encapsulating both the
recognised diversity of languages among the tribes, and a certain degree of unity.
For an everyday person, religion was probably not a divisive issue from day to day, with
most tribes encompassing a variety of faiths and beliefs which coexisted with one another
without rivalry, and even adapted to one another.
Shamanism was the most common religion among the Eurasian tribes, but among certain tribes
- the Naiman and Uygurs for example, other ‘foreign’ faiths such as Nestorian Christianity
and Buddhism were dominant.
A Nestorian Christian might privately worship in their yurt, and go out to hunt with comrades
who were Buddhist and traditionally Shamanistic, for example.
Instead of religious uniformity, loyalty and identity for a regular Mongol tribesman or
woman was associated with individuals such as tribal leaders, and through them, one’s
ancestors.
The tribe itself was considered the basic cohesive unit of society and, however diverse
a particular tribe’s languages and ethnicity, considered itself the descendant of common
ancestors.
This was usually the case no matter how questionable and mythical that ancestry might have been
in reality, as it helped to foster a common sense of belonging.
Inter-tribal warfare which is commonly seen on the steppe shows us that they were often
ferociously independent and would violently resist any attempts to draw them into a supranational
authority, unless the forfeit of one's autonomy promised incredible rewards, mostly in terms
of wealth and booty.
Wealth in Mongol society was not wealth in our sedentary terms - paper money or coins
of gold or silver, but was instead measured by the possession of livestock such as horses
and sheep.
Therefore, protecting and amassing such beasts was a crucial concern of the tribes.
These groups lived and pastured their flocks of animals over a vast area stretching all
the way from Eastern Europe all the way east to the region north of China, where the Mongols
made their home.
South of the massive Central Asain Plateau the steppe transforms into desert, a vast
dry zone dotted with islands of urban and agricultural settlement.
Tribes might enter into formal or informal relationships with these settlements, often
with mutual benefit.
In returns for products gained from hunting, such as furs and other items that could only
be gained on the steppe, sedentary populations might offer luxury goods or agricultural products.
In contrast to this frontier area, the prairies and gentle mountain slopes of the steppe proper
were totally blank in terms of static settlements and towns.
Those who would dwell on this barrel but often beautiful landscape were the stereotypical
pastoral nomads and hunters, with life necessitating a seasonal migration in constant search of
water and grass which the tribe’s animals could live on.
After all, if you stay in the same area for years with a ton of animals, you will strip
the area clean of fodder.
Though the nomads mostly disregarded fixed dwellings, their migration routes were often
rigid, so they would travel around to the same places each year.
As a result of this repeated use of the same territory year after year, cultivation of
crops was practiced on a limited scale.
They would sow suitable crops for the area, go to their other regions and then return
to harvest on their return migration.
Nomads were constantly on the move, alert to any environmental, climatic and human changes
around them, and were always prepared for danger and threats.
Because of this, the pastoral population was a natural martial force.
Warfare on the steppe was the business of every single male, who doubled as a fighter
and raider in addition to their primary ‘civilian’ occupation - a hunter for example.
Even some women were trained to fight when necessary.
The culture of the steppe was ripe with tales and songs of warrior heroes, much like the
sagas of the vikings.
In essence, these nomadic groups were nascent armies waiting to be unleashed.
Of course, hunting with bows and arrows on the steppe - also known as the ‘nerge’,
was essentially a natural kind of military training undertaken from an extremely early
age, and it produced a population of expert horsemen and extremely talented archers.
Therefore, horse archers became their dominant troop type.
Though herds of cattle and other animals were the primary commodity of steppe peoples, the
other basic need among tribes was women, as they were functionally the means through which
a population was continued.
They were also ‘hunted’ in a similar manner to animals because most tribes were strictly
exogamous, meaning that they only married outside of their own clan.
While this institutionalised kidnapping of human ‘prizes’ would frequently lead to
intertribal conflict, marriage alliances between different tribes was very common and served
as a stable bond between parties.
This is not to say women were only commodities to be traded in steppe culture, and women
often played a crucial role in the functioning of tribes in Turco-Mongol society.
They played a role in all aspects of life, including warfare against other tribes.
Political power that women often exercised is demonstrated by the regencies of Toregene
Khatun from 1241 to 1246 and Oghul Ghaymish from 1248 to 1251.
These two Mongol Empresses were perhaps the most influential women in the history of the
world.
When speaking of such political power in tribal terms, it usually lay with its khan, or chief.
He generally rose from the tribe’s aristocratic elite, but it’s worth noting that it was
nowhere near as rigid and strict as, for example, European aristocracy.
A talented lowborn warrior could rise to become chief if he was deft enough.
The choice of a new leader was made in a semi-meritocratic way, demanding that succession fall to the
best-qualified and most competent candidate, rather than merely going with the son of a
previous chief.
While this is the case, candidates would most often be selected from among members of the
traditionally chiefly house, but we can see Genghis Khan as a clear example of where this
rule wasn’t followed.
As the head of a tribe, the chief, or khan’s primary responsibilities included the allotment
of pastures among his tribal clans, the plotting of migration times and routes, and decisive,
often ruthless leadership.
Far from being a tribal form of autocratic dictator, the chief’s authority was counterbalanced
by his lesser nobles, shaman and other influential individuals.
In effect, the tribe was a relatively simple administrative structure with two main levels
- the tribal chief at the top exercising direct control over his nobles, and the individual
nobles controlling their own retinue of commoners, who were answerable to them alone.
When one of the many historical tribal empires or confederations came about, it became necessary
for a lower khan to surrender his tribe’s independence for the survival of his tribe.
The reality of the steppe was that weaker tribes had to be subjugated beneath the strong.
However, a royal lineage or even an imperial one - such as the Borjigin of Genghis became
a larger-scale unifying force with which an extra sense of unity and identity was derived.
The ‘supratribe’ could be joined by a smaller group in three ways: it could pledge
loyalty and be incorporated in its entirety, could be broken into smaller units and absorbed
after a defeat, or assigned to individual military commanders.
Another centre of political power in the tribe was independent of tribal nobility, known
as the shaman, or ‘boge’.
This religious figure was the ordinary tribesman’s link with the spiritual world.
His ability to foretell the future and bring order from the apparent chaos of the steppe
gave a tribe’s shaman enormous prestige and authority, with many khans and chieftains
using their shamans as key advisors - a smart move in their eyes, as the shaman had magical,
holy power at their command.
However, in some cases it could even be the case, as we mentioned before, that a shaman
might form a rival political authority within the tribe to the khan, or even become the
chief himself - it was a flexible system in that way.
In a religious capacity, the shaman’s talents were called upon for choosing favourable days
for celebrations, important events, commencing battle with an enemy, advice on electing new
leaders and many, many more things.
Shamanism probably originated from some form of ancestor worship, and most Mongol tents
or yurts contained images of the family ancestors.
On top of this, Tengri - heaven, was worshipped as a god and mother Earth, or ‘itugen’
was venerated, and between them numerous lesser spirits.
The opinion of a shaman was disregarded at the chief’s peril, because the entire tribe
believed in his holy power and the authority of his words.
This was made even more real because a tribal shaman was often associated with a larger
‘guild’ of fellow shamans linked with other clans and tribes.
The flexibility of Central Asia’s tribal nations extended to inheritance customs at
almost all levels.
A dead father’s camp, or ordu, and possessions, including his wives and slaves were inherited
by the youngest son of the chief’s wife, though it should be added that it wasn’t
the child’s actual mother.
In steppe tradition, while the youngest son inherited possessions, it was the eldest who
would retain seniority and inherit the ulus - or subject people furthest from the family’s
homeland.
Middle sons would inherit lands between the extremities.
At the highest possible level, Genghis Khan followed this tradition with Jochi - his firstborn,
who received lands far to the west, while his youngest - Tolui, received the Mongol
steppe itself.
We’ll talk about the Mongols more in the coming weeks, so make sure you are subscribed
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