when we observe the Sun it is not
possible to see inside of it using
observations of the outside of the Sun
can provide clues to how the Sun might
be functioning it is almost universally
accepted that the Sun is a thermonuclear
engine whose purpose is to radiate
excess energy liberated from matter deep
in its core Jurgens was one of the first
to look at the evidence in a totally
different light and propose a mechanism
whereby the Sun was not powered from
within but was driven externally and
that the light that we see was not from
an internal thermonuclear reaction but
instead was from an external electric
discharge his model is both simple and
complex simple to grasp the main concept
but much harder to understand the inner
workings I want to explore Juergen z'
concept in more detail so that you can
understand the mechanisms and the
evidence that he saw and how this fits
into the larger picture of the electric
universe in the first part we will
examine jurgen s-- model and the
granulation and tufting this series will
be split into a number of episodes
focusing on specific aspects of the
model and then understanding how this
would operate within a galactic
framework and then discussing how this
model has been worked on further inside
the EU community
one of the strangest aspects of the
photosphere is it's lumpy granular
structure originally Sir William
Herschel thought that this was a sign
that the Sun had an atmosphere and that
the glow came from brilliantly luminous
clouds at the top of the atmosphere
nowadays we think these patches are
formed by blobs of hot plasma these are
referred to as granulations and seem to
exhibit a very uniform structure these
granulations are about a thousand
kilometres in diameter and come and go
in the space of minutes solar scientists
were quick to identify these as the
changing tops of convection currents
bringing light and heat from an unstable
layer beneath and that it showed that
the photosphere éclairs are in constant
turbulent motion most astronomers are
now fairly certain that these bright
cells are the tops of columns of hot
gases being rapidly transported from the
depth to the surface as they cool these
columns of hot gases begin to sink and
as an effect of cooling they lose their
brilliance and appearing dark by
contrast to the hot ascending columns
the granules fail to live up to this
expectation true enough observers report
rapid upward motions and the speedy
growth and decay of granules these
motions are however very orderly the
growing cycles are non violent these do
not qualify as turbulent eruptions you
would expect to find equally the darker
regions of the granules where we would
expect the cooler gases to be subsiding
lower should also have an equally
chaotic pattern and it should be similar
to the upwelling hot gases yet we do not
see any similarity between the light and
the dark regions and they also do not
appear to have any chaotic structure
these dark areas almost appear as canals
running between the bright areas we
often see the granules fading these then
tend to divide and some seem to merge
with others and gloom again there is
little evidence to suggest violent
mixing and roiling to be expected in Ana
modulus flu
stirred by strong convection currents
the peculiar motions are the photosphere
also argue against the idea of turbulent
convection near the solar equator the
period of rotation is about 25 days as
we move higher up this changes to about
35 days if convection currents were
driving the material upwards and then
back down you would expect this process
to bring this difference back and cause
a more uniform rotation you may see
examples of convection in hot wax which
look very similar to the granulations on
the Sun this process is labeled as
stationary convection the problem is
that this turns out not to be a process
caused by convection at all it is caused
by a temperature dependence of the
surface tension these beautifully
regular convection cells depend on
capillary action and not on convection
increase the depth of the wax just a
little and these regular shapes
disappear and the term non stationary is
applied
despite this solar scientists still
claim that the stationary convection
causes the granulations on the Sun
another term that is used to describe
this motion of the fluid is the Reynolds
number this tells you when a fluid is
moving in a laminar flow think smoothly
or turbulent when you look at the
Reynolds numbers required to produce
these smooth convection cells it comes
out at 10 to the power of 3 when we
examine the surface of the Sun
calculations put this number at 10 to
the power of 11 which is a hundred
billion times greater than that required
for laminar flow in other words it would
be extremely turbulent yet we do not see
this turbulence in the granules but why
do we think there is convection in the
first place part of the reason relates
to the fact that we cannot see beneath
the bright photosphere the argument
given is that deep inside the Sun
thermonuclear reactions go on and
liberate energy this energy struggles to
escape initially this proceeds as
radiation at some depth below the
surface
their path is blocked because the gases
here have become opaque and are
absorbing the radiation they heat up
become less dense and rise up a
convective process is set up
transporting the hotter gases upward
towards the surface at the surface the
rising cell of gas unload their
radiation energy into space they cool
and increase the density and plunge back
downwards the problem is that as you
move outwards from the center the
density of the gas will naturally become
less and less and this means that as the
convection column approaches the upper
layers more and more turbulence will be
present and again we do not see this in
the granules on the surface granules can
be viewed as relatively dense high
luminous secondary plasma that springs
into being in the embrace of a primary
plasma about a current stress a node in
a low pressure gas electric discharge
both media are largely hydrogen gas
ionized to the plasma state based on
this critical distinction between the
cathode and anode phenomenon Jurgens
assigned the solar body the role of the
anode that is the more positive
electrode in a cosmical electric
discharge it is therefore quite apparent
that the granules have a striking
similarity to the highly luminous Tufts
of discharged plasma often refer to as
anode Tufts these are many times more
luminous than the surrounding plasma
they have a sharp outline and are
bounded by a transition zone and not by
true surfaces you should already start
to see the similarities between the
granules on the Sun and the anode Tufts
Irving Langmuir spent a long time
studying these Tufts in the laboratory
these anode Tufts appear at evenly
spaced points of the electric breakdown
in an anode sheath when the electric
current to the anode becomes excessive
breakdown occurs and this really means
further ionization of the medium and a
second plasma will form within the first
is important to realize that these
particles of matter in a discharge
plasma have two kinds of motion
random thermal motion which is reflected
in the temperature of the various
particles electrons positive ions and
electrically neutral particles these
will have differing speeds typically
electrons will have the highest random
motion due to their small mass the
second type of motion is drift motion
these are in response to a weak electric
field that exists within the extensive
positive column region of the discharge
plasma the electrons will tend to drift
towards the anode while the positive
ions will drift in the opposite
direction the drift of these two
constitutes a drift current and
represents the entire electric current
of the discharge plasma in order to
maintain a steady discharge the anode
must collect an uninterrupted stream of
electrons which must be equal to the
total drift current in the cross section
of the discharge plasma the random
motions of the electrons are usually
more energetic than their drift motion
if the anode was in direct contact with
the plasma then due to the electrons
increased motions and the positive ions
moving in the opposite direction the
overall current collected by the anode
would be more than the discharge could
sustain and an instability would result
this may be an alternative explanation
for highly variable stars the remedy for
this is to allow the anode to disengage
from the plasma initially it accepts a
certain number of excess electrons and
takes on a slightly negative charge
relative to the plasma which will end up
repelling all but the most energetic of
the electrons and this allows the anode
to manage the incoming current to allow
the electron flow to equal that carried
by the discharged plasma any electrons
which are rejected are returned to the
plasma leaving behind a thin sheath of
positive space charge between the plasma
and the anode surface the sheath
therefore limits the electric field due
to the excess negative charge taken on
by the anode in making its adjustment if
the surface area of the anode was
reduced then it would mean that the
density at the anode surface would have
to exceed that in the discharge plasma
it would need to collect more of the
random current to make up the difference
in this case the anode could give up
some of its electrons increasing is
relative potential creating a smaller
potential drop between the surface and
the outer discharged plasma if the anode
size is reduced further this potential
difference would continue to drop until
there would be no need for a sheath and
the anode would be in direct contact
with the plasma that is the situation
for white dwarf stars which are lit by
their faint white Corona continue to
reduce the size further and now the
plasma is no longer able to supply the
required electrons the anode must
enlarge itself it does this through the
creation of a space charge seat which is
now negative it achieves this by
removing some of its electrons and
acquiring a positive bias the sheath
will grow until it's surface can collect
the required electrons to satisfy the
discharge current the outer boundary of
the sheath becomes the effective anode
surface this is the situation for red
stars that is those without a bright
photosphere which accounts for the giant
and variable apparent size as we shrink
the anode this process continues until
the electrons are attracted to the
electric field with enough speed to
start ionizing some of the surrounding
neutral material at this point the
entire sheath will start to glow as this
process continues more and more
ionization takes place and the sheath
itself will start to break down at this
point Tufts on the secondary plasma will
start to appear the faint glow of the
sheath gives way to the birth of highly
luminous plasma the breakdown on the
Tufts yields electrons deliverable to
the anode and also provides positive
ions that are driven in the opposite
direction
Tufts themselves have been studied for a
long time and we know that the structure
that they take very well in the
following diagram you will
see how the potential changes across the
Tufts we can see that there are
effectively three sheaths they're
labeled as two one is a double sheath
than one there's a single sheet so
starting at the bottom so where the
anode would be we would see a positive
space charge between the anode and the
secondary plasma the tuft we would then
see another positive space charge just
on the other side of the tuft and then
further out which would be in our case
towards the chromis the top end of the
chrome store de Corona we would see a
negative space charge so this shows that
the anode potential is higher than the
primary plasma but lower than the tough
plasma this need not always be the case
as the anode can limit the influx of
electrons this can drive potential to
drop below the primary plasma
observations of Fraunhofer lines on the
photosphere and these are spectrographic
absorption features strongly suggest
that both neutral atoms and positive
ions drift downwards between the
granules this is generally accepted as
evidence of a descending bulk gas
motions but if the motions of these
positive ions were electrically induced
as we are proposing these would
naturally cause the neutral atoms to
drift with them through a sort of
electric wind effect the same Fraunhofer
lines are much broader in the darker
spaces between the granules this is
normally attributed to turbulence in the
medium why would there be more violent
in these darker regions compared to the
brighter granules an alternative would
be that the observed broadening arise
instead from the emissions of radiation
in an electric field this is called the
stark effect in the electric Sun
hypothesis the first true plasma we come
to above the photosphere is the solar
corona below the corona and above the
photosphere is the chromosphere a region
whose reddish glow shines forth during
solar eclipses
the observed temperature minimum just
above the photosphere marks the
beginning of the concave upward wing of
the double sheath curve of the diagram
that we previously looked at here the
electric field is at its most intense
and this means that the entire
chromaspheres03 480p itis fear it's
lower regions are ravaged by many
different effects some of which include
short-lived Jets called spicules
erupting prominences and explosive solar
flares these may all the tests at the
difficulties related to the maintenance
of a stable discharge the electric Sun
must maintain a steady stream of
electrons to maintain the external
plasma in the Tufts this requires dozens
and dozens of electrons from the corona
plasma to enter the sheath for each
positive ion that leaves in the opposite
direction as the corona is fully ionized
it has a ready supply of electrons but
they are not endless these spicules may
be a mechanism to allow the Sun to
replenish the electrons in the corona as
they spew vast quantities of ions and
electrons into the corona any electron
that reaches the anode must do so by
passing through a sheath that tends to
slow them down and send them back to the
toughed the electric field in this
sheath tends to send positive ions to
the anode and indeed many of them
produced in the toughed must find their
way to the anode where there are
undoubtedly deionized and restored to a
neutral atom only electrons with the
energies in excess of a certain minimum
value make it across this anode sheath
an excess of impurities in the plasma
such as other more easily ionizable
atoms like iron could mean that
relatively speaking more of them will
become ionized in turn the plasma will
become relatively overpopulated
lower energy electrons released by these
easy ionizations and this could clog up
the whole system a tuft is therefore a
sort of trap in which electrons of lower
energies must tend to accumulate the
degree to which this occurs must effect
the negative space charge within the
tuft and cause it to increase over time
this means that the electric potential
of the tuft plasma with respect to the
primary plasma must decrease over time
but this will cause a lowering of the
barrier to the anode and will allow some
of the lower energy electrons to reach
the anode if this continues the tuft
itself may be totally disabled now the
double sheath starts to collapse and the
incoming electrons are no longer
accelerated deionization quickly sets in
spreading rapidly the light of the tuft
begins to fade and the once brilliantly
bright blob goes away the photosphere as
a whole seems to add up to yet another
strong indication that the Sun draws its
energy not from within itself but from
its cosmic environment and that the
delivery mechanism is an electric
discharge embracing the entire solar
system in the next part we will examine
how the system functions on a larger
scale how it receives the incoming
current and how this may account for
differences in the population of stars
that we see across the galaxy as always
be brave be curious the truth is waiting
for us until next time
you