Universal suffrage consists of the extension of the right to vote to adult citizens, though
it may also mean extending that right to minors and non-citizens.
Although suffrage has two necessary components, the right to vote and opportunities to vote,
the term universal suffrage is associated only with the right to vote and ignores the
frequency that an incumbent government consults the electorate.
Where universal suffrage exists, the right to vote is not restricted by race, sex, belief,
wealth, or social status.
In 1893 New Zealand became the first nation in the world to grant universal, male and
female adult suffrage.
Historically, however, universal suffrage usually referred to adult male suffrage.
France was the first nation that announced universal [male] suffrage; it had the first
national system that abolished all property requirements as a prerequisite for allowing
men to register and vote.
Republican France first instituted full male suffrage in 1792.
France and Switzerland have recognized full male suffrage continuously since 1848.
The German Empire implemented full male suffrage from 1871.
In most countries, full universal suffrage followed about 10 to 20 years after full male
suffrage.
Notable exceptions in Europe were France, where women could not vote until 1945, Italy,
Belgium, and Switzerland.
In the first modern democracies, governments restricted the vote to those with property
and wealth, which almost always meant a minority of the male population.
In some jurisdictions, other restrictions existed, such as requiring voters to practice
a given religion.
In all modern democracies, the number of people who could vote has increased progressively
with time.
In the 19th century in Europe, Great Britain and North America, there were movements advocating
"universal [male] suffrage".
The democratic movement of the late 19th century, unifying liberals and social democrats, particularly
in northern Europe, used the slogan Equal and Common Suffrage.
Universal suffrage requires the right to vote to be granted to all citizens.
Some countries, however, do not allow certain categories of citizens to vote.
This includes felony disenfranchisement and disfranchisement based on resident status.
Expanding suffrage
The first movements in the Western world toward universal suffrage occurred in the early 19th
century, and focused on removing property requirements for voting.
In the United States following the American Civil War, slaves were freed and granted rights
of citizens, including suffrage for adult males.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the focus of the universal suffrage movement
was the extension of the right to vote to women.
Several European nations that had enacted universal suffrage had their normal legal
process, or their status as an independent nation, interrupted during and after the First
World War.
Many societies in the past have denied people the right to vote on the basis of race or
ethnicity, related to discriminatory ideas about citizenship.
For example, in apartheid-era South Africa, non-white people could not vote in national
elections until the first multi-party elections in 1994.
Although in the United States African Americans were granted the rights of citizens, including
suffrage, by constitutional amendments following the American Civil War, later in the century
white Democrats had regained control in all states of the former Confederacy in the American
South.
From 1890 to 1910 they passed new constitutions, laws or constitutional amendments establishing
barriers to voter registration and, later, voting, that essentially disfranchised most
African Americans.
They mounted legal challenges, but did not fully regain the ability to exercise their
rights until after passage in the mid-1960s of the Voting Rights Act, which provided federal
protection and enforcement.
This was a result of their activism in the Civil Rights Movement.
Disfranchisement
All US states, with the exceptions of Maine and Vermont, disfranchise some felons from
voting depending on their current incarceration, parole or probation status; a number of US
states permanently disfranchise some felons, even after their release from prison.
Many states within the U.S. previously disfranchised paupers, persons who either paid no direct
taxes, or received public assistance.
Nations have differing degrees of legal recognition of non-resident citizens: non-resident Danes
cannot vote after two years; non-resident Italians may vote for representatives at-large
in the Italian parliament; British citizens cannot vote for their national parliament
unless they have lived in the UK within the last fifteen years.
A few nations also restrict those who are part of the military or police forces, e.g.
Kuwait.
Many democratic countries, for example the United Kingdom and France, have had colonies
with citizens living outside of the mother country and have generally not been entitled
to vote for the national legislature.
A peculiarly complex case is that of Algeria under the Third French Republic: Algeria was
legally an integral part of France, but citizenship was restricted by legal status, not by race
or ethnicity.
Any Muslim Algerian could become a French citizen by choosing to live like one.
As this required the person to resign jurisdiction under Islamic law in favour of French civic
law, very few did.
Among Muslims, such a change was considered apostasy from Islam, which was the dominant
religion in Algeria.
Colonists in America declared Independence from Great Britain citing "no taxation without
representation" as one of their main grievances.
However, the newly minted country did not grant its overseas the right to vote in elections
either.
This did not happen until the passage of the Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting
Act in 1986.
Citizens of an EU Member State are allowed to vote in EU parliamentary elections, as
well as some local elections.
For example, a British person living in Graz, Austria, would be entitled to vote for the
European Parliament as a resident of the "electoral district" of Austria, and to vote in Graz
municipal elections.
He would, however, not be entitled to vote in Austrian elections, or Styrian elections.
Similarly, all locally resident EU citizens in the UK are allowed to vote for representatives
of the local council, and those resident in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland may vote
for the devolved parliaments or assemblies.
But, only British, Irish and Commonwealth citizens are allowed to vote for the British
House of Commons.
In the West Bank, Palestinians are not Israeli citizens and therefore cannot vote in Israeli
elections.
Different areas of the West Bank are under varying levels of Israeli control.
settlers to Area C retain their citizenship, and can continue to vote.
Criticism of universal suffrage In recent years, some journalists have criticised
universal suffrage.
Renowned Russian journalist Yulia Latynina has suggested a ktitocracy be created: this
electoral qualification would extend suffrage only to those persons who pay more in taxes
than they consume in social welfare.
She also proposed that the state buy out and destroy individual votes for a particular
sum.
This is intended to ensure that those who do not place high value on their votes do
not influence the result, but at the same time they are not explicitly deprived of the
right to vote.
Notable dates for universal suffrage in the world
States have granted and revoked universal suffrage at various times.
This list can be organised in three ways:Universal There are no distinctions between voters of
the same age in any part of its territories due to gender, literacy, wealth, social status,
language, religion, race, or ethnicity.Male is for all males over a certain age irrespective
of literacy, wealth, or social status.Female is for all genders over a certain age irrespective
of literacy, wealth, or social status.Ethnicity is for all eligible voters over a certain
age irrespective of language, religion, race, or ethnicity.Note: The table can be sorted
alphabetically or chronologically using the icon.
Women's suffrage
The first women's suffrage was granted in Corsica in 1755 and lasted until 1769.
Women's suffrage was next granted in New Jersey in 1776 and rescinded in 1807.
The Pitcairn Islands granted restricted women's suffrage in 1838.
Various other countries and states granted restricted women's suffrage in the later half
of the nineteenth century, starting with South Australia in 1861.
The first unrestricted women's suffrage in a major country was granted in New Zealand
in 1893.
The women's suffrage bill was adopted mere weeks before the general election of 1893.
Māori men had been granted suffrage in 1867, white men in 1879.
The Freedom in the World index lists New Zealand as the only free country in the world in 1893.
South Australia first granted women suffrage and allowed them to stand for parliament in
1894.
The autonomous Grand Principality of Finland, a decade before becoming the republic of Finland,
was the first European country to introduce female suffrage in 1906.
It was also the second country to allow female candidates and the first to actually elect
female MP's in 1907.
In 1931, the Second Spanish Republic allowed women the right of passive suffrage with three
women being elected.
During the discussion to extend their right to active suffrage, the Radical Socialist
Victoria Kent confronted the Radical Clara Campoamor.
Kent argued that Spanish women were not yet prepared to vote and, since they were too
influenced by the Catholic Church they would vote for right-wing candidates.
Campoamor however pleaded for women's rights regardless of political orientation.
Her point finally prevailed and, in the election of 1933, the political right won with the
vote of citizens of any sex over 23.
Both Campoamor and Kent lost their seats.
Youth suffrage, children's suffrage and suffrage in school
Main article: Youth suffrage Democratic schools practice and support universal
suffrage in school, which allows a vote to every member of the school, including students
and staff.
Such schools hold that this feature is essential for students to be ready to move into society
at large.
See also Suffragette
Demeny voting Voting age
Equality before the law List of suffragists and suffragettes
List of women's rights activists Timeline of women's suffrage
References
External links Limited suffrage in England prior to the 1832
reforms Finnish centennial celebration
"Have you heard the news?", a pamphlet published by an anonymous English freeman in 1835
An address to the middle and working classes engaged in trade and manufactures throughout
the empire on the necessity of union at the present crisis by Richard Gardner